Boiler Fundamentals

Boiler Fundamentals
Energy Relationships, Efficiency &

Boiler Design
2009, General Electric Company. All rights reserved.
GE Proprietary
Boiler Efficiency and Energy

Relationships
Boiler efficiency
Fuel types and energy values
Plant cost factors
Operational factors impacting efficiency
2/
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Why Is an Understanding of
Efficiency and Energy
Relationships
Important?
Fuel is by far the largest component of boiler plant operation cost
It is important to understand your customer & prospects fuel

costs and system efficiency, and the $ impact of efficiency
changes (positive or negative)
There are often opportunities for energy savings in low-pressure

boiler systems
Many low pressure systems are not optimized
The CCR BankBook is an excellent tool to identify and explore
savings opportunities
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Calculating Boiler Efficiency

Fuel-to-steam efficiency calculation
(BTUs in Steam Produced**)
% Efficiency =
_______________________ X 100
(BTUs in Fuel Burned**)
** Steam production and fuel usage must be over same time period
Stack gas temperature
% Efficiency =
(BTUs in Fuel)
(BTUs in Fuel) - (BTUs lost up stack)

________________________________
X 100
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Typical Fuel-to Steam

Efficiencies
Modern package watertube and firetube
boilers 75 - 85% fuel-to-steam efficiency
Post 1973 designs (first oil embargo)
Maximum gas-fired efficiency = 84%
Oil-fired typically 2-3% higher than gas due
to lower excess air requirement
Older package boilers (pre-73) - 60 - 80%

5/
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Typical Fuel-to Steam

Efficiencies
Stack gas economizers increase
efficiency
Rules-of-thumb: 1% increase per 40F
reduction in stack gas temperature or per 10F
rise in feedwater temperature
Typical is 80 - 100F reduction which equates to
a 2 - 2.5% efficiency increase
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Fundamental Energy
Relationships
Heating Surface Area-to-Steam Capacity
4 - 6 ft2 = 1 BHP = 34.5 pph steam

- Modern package watertube & firetube boilers
8 - 10 ft2 = 1 BHP = 34.5 pph steam
- Older boilers
- Field-erected watertubes
7/
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Other Fuel Types

Average: 1080 BTU required per lb. of steam
between 15 & 300 psig
Heat Values of Other Fuel Sources:
Sawdust (15% moisture)

Wood Bark (50% moisture)
Paper
Trash (variable)
8500 BTU/lb
3500 BTU/lb
7600 BTU/lb
4000 - 8500 BTU/lb
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Fuel-to-Steam Relationships
A boiler plant produces 500 million lbs of
steam per year. Fuel is natural gas at
$6.00/MCF.
1. What is the annual fuel cost?
2. What does it cost to make 1 million pounds of
steam?
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Fuel-to-Steam Relationships
1.
500,000,000 lbs steam/yr

-------------------------------- = 714,286
MCF/yr
700 lbs steam / MCF
2.
714,286 MCF X $6.00 / MCF = $4.29
million/yr
3.
Fuel cost to produce 1 million lbs of steam

$4,290,000/yr / 500 million lbs steam /yr
= $8,580 per million lbs. steam
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Boiler Water Treatment Costs

in Perspective
What does it cost to treat this system?
Range of boiler WT costs for low-pressure,
zeolite-softened systems
$50 - $400 per million lbs. of steam
11 /
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in Perspective
Key variables in BWT costs:
Cycles of concentration
Size of plant team production
FW Quality
- Make-up alkalinity & % MU
Pressure deaerator or FW tank?
Program type
- Separates, all-in-ones, powders, liquids, etc.
12 /
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Typical Boiler Plant Cost Factors

Fuel 75%
Labor 9.5%
Water 0.8%
Sewer 1.2%
Equip.
Depreciatio
Electricity
n
2.5%
9.5%
Water Treatment Chemicals 1.5%
13 /
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in Perspective
Using our example:
Fuel costs = $ 4.29 million

Boiler plant costs = $4.29 MM/0.75 = $5.72
MM/yr
BWT costs = 500 MM steam x $100/MM =
$50,000/yr
% BWT costs vs. plant costs = 0.87%
14 /
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in Perspective
Preserving design efficiency & maintenance

and repair cost avoidance easily outweigh
BWT costs
Cost of efficiency loss - $4.29 MM/yr fuel

cost
- 1% efficiency loss = $42,900 added fuel cost
- 5% efficiency loss - $214,500 added fuel costs
15 /
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Operational Factors Which

Impact Efficiency
Boiler loading & load balancing
Most efficient near design load vs. low load
Combustion efficiency
Tune burner to minimize excess air, unburned
hydrocarbons
Effective insulation of steam lines

Minimize sensible heat loss & condensation
16 /
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Operational Factors Which

Impact Efficiency
Effective heat recovery systems
Stack gas economizers
Air preheaters
Blowdown heat exchangers & flashtanks
Effective routine maintenance
Maintenance & cleaning during annual
shutdowns
Minimize fireside/waterside deposits
17 /
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Impact of Effective Boiler Water

Treatment on Efficiency
Minimize deposit & scale formation
Waterside scale formation - Effective pretreatment
& chemical treatment are critical
Minimize fireside deposition
Minimize boiler blowdown

Maximize cycles based on water quality limits
and effective water treatment
18 /
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Impact of Effective Boiler Water

Treatment on Efficiency
Maximize steam condensate return
Effective system design, trap placement & operation
Effective steam condensate treatment will minimize
corrosion failures & corrosion product return
Minimize steam leaks

Effective treatment will minimize corrosion and
steam trap failures
19 /
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Energy Loss (%)
Potential Energy Loss Versus

Waterside Scale Thickness
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1/64
1/32
3/64
1/16
Scale Thickness (Inches)

Iron & Silica
High Iron Content
"Normal" Scale
20 /
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Watertube Boilers
Risers
Superheater
Downcomers
Steam
Drum
Screen Tubes
Economizer
Water Walls
Air Heater
Mud
Drum
Boiler Design
21 /
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Typical Field-Erected
Industrial Watertube
Economizer
Typical
Parts
of
a
Boilers
Steam drum
Water Tube Boiler
Includes:
Mud Drum
Headers
Boiler Bank
Downcomers - Risers
Waterwalls
Screen tubes
Arches
Floor tubes
Roof tubes
Superheater
Air Heater
22 /
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Heat Transfer Percentage

Per Surface Area
Section
Adsorbed
% Heat Transfer
Surface Area
% Heat
Furnace Water Walls
48
Superheater
10
16
Boiler Bank
32
20
Economizer
44
11
Air Heater
23 /
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Common Package Boilers

D
O
A
Cleaver-Brooks
24 /
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Typical Components Of Package

Watertube Boiler
Standard components:
Steam drum
Mud Drum
Boiler Bank
Downcomers - Risers
Waterwalls
Optional components (+/-):

Stack gas economizer - external
Superheater - typically with turbine
25 /
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D Frame Boiler
Note - Downcomer or supply tubes are those

shielded from the flame and combustion
gases by the risers or refractory
Steam
Drum
Risers
or Generating
Tubes
Mud
Drum
Downcomers
or Supply
Tubes
26 /
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27 /
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D Frame Gas Passes
28 /
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Cleaver Brooks Package

Wt
29 /
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O Type
Boiler
30 /
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O Type
31 /
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A Frame
32 /
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33 /
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A Frame
34 /
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Bryant Flex Tube

Boilers
35 /
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Miura Compact WT Boilers
36 /
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Typical Combined Cycle

Facility
37 /
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Steam Separation Equipment

Mechanical devices that reduce moisture
entrainment in the steam
Watertube boilers:
Deflector, Baffle & Belly plates
Scrubbers or screens
Cyclone separators
Firetube boilers:
Dry pipes
38 /
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Steam Separation Equipment

Steam quality - Measure of the moisture
content (boiler water droplets) in steam
Expressed as % dry steam
99% Steam Quality typical in low pressure

boilers
1% moisture in steam leaving boiler
Entrained boiler water contains solids
More on this coming up

39 /
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Package Watertube Boiler

Typical Steam Separation Equipme
Deflector Baffle
Baffle
Compartment
40 /
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Type B Baffle
41 /
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Primary Steam Separation

Cyclones
42 /
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43 /
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Firetube Boiler Designs
44 /
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Firetube Boilers
Very common in commercial/institutional & light
industrial accounts
More forgiving than watertube in terms of:
Low-load operation
Poor feedwater quality/scale
Load swings
Unattended operation
Maintenance/repair
45 /
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Firetube
1 st
Pass
Area
1 st
Pass
3 rd
Pass
2 nd
Pass
Area
2 nd
Pass
Area
3 rd
Pass
4 th
Pass
Area
4 th Pass
Decreasing cross sectional area of each

pass maintains high flue gas velocity
46 /
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Miscellaneous Low-Pressure
Boiler Designs
47 /
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Watertube vs. Firetube Boilers

Watertube
Firetube
Efficiency
High
High
Capacity
Unlimited
800 BHP
Low
High
Cost to Re-tube
High
Low
Cogen./Turbine
Yes
No
Tolerance vs.
Scale/BFW quality
48 /
GE /
Coil Boilers
Small, fast-start, forced circulation steam
generators from 15 - 750 BHP
Heating surface is single, spiral-wound coil
High heat flux and high thermal stress
Coil failure is common - causes include:
overheating due to scale formation, blockage, pump
failure
oxygen pitting
thermal shock or fatigue
49 /
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Clayton Steam
Generator
Pump
50 /
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Clayton Steam
Generators
51 /
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Not All Coil Boilers Are

Vertical!!!
52 /
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Coil Boilers
Critical Treatment Considerations

Continuous, high-quality softened make-up
Less than 1 ppm Total Hardness
Consistent oxygen control - Minimum of 50

ppm sulfite residual in hotwell
Non-precipitating, non-chelant internal
treatment required
All-polymer
Condensate treatment is recommended

53 /
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Electric Boilers
2 Basic Types
1. Resistance (immersion element)
2. Electrode - High & Low Voltage
Common treatment requirements

All require high-quality, softened make-up
Avoid precipitating phosphate & chelant
All-polymer/sulfite normally recommended
54 /
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55 /
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Fulton Electric Steam

Boilers
56 /
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Electrode Boilers
In the event you someday see one ...

Greater than 2 ppm iron in BW can cause arcing
400 ppm maximum BW M-alkalinity to preserve
ceramic insulators
300 ppm max. BW chloride - stainless steel cracking
Conductivity limits - Different designs have
specific limits. Check Mfg. Recs.
Sodium sulfite levels can be used to control conductivity
Oxygen is generated - Consider volatile O2 scavenger
(DEHA) for condensate protection
57 /
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High-Voltage SubmergedElectrode Hot-Water Boiler
58 /
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Low-Voltage SubmergedElectrode Steam Boiler
Startup and Maximum Output
Partial load
59 /
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Hot Water Heating Boilers
60 /
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Aerco Vertical Hot Water

Boiler
61 /
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HW Boilers are Classified by

Operating Temperature
Low Temperature: 160 - 250F
Common for comfort heating in C&I
Typically firetube or cast-iron sectional
Medium Temperature: 250 - 350F

Common in Govt, Military installations
High Temperature: > 350F / P > 160 psig

Alternative to steam in large, distributed heating systems
Typically watertube
62 /
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Treatment of Hot Water

Boilers
Treat as closed system - Make-up should be minimal

Low-Temp. HW Boilers
Nitrite, Molybdate, Sulfite/Polymer OK
Medium & High-Temp. HW Boilers

Softened Make-up/No conductivity limit:
Molybdate/Nitrite OK up to 350F
Sulfite/Polymer > 350F
Demineralized or High-purity Make-up
Low conductivity treatment required
Volatile oxygen scavenger/amine - DEHA/morpholine
63 /
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HighTemperature
Hot Water
System
Forced
circulation with
expansion tank
64 /
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Cast-Iron Sectional
Boiler
65 /
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Treatment Recommendations
Cast Iron Sectional Boilers
Good quality softened makeup water
Hardness levels above 2 ppm may cause cracking
failure
Do not apply PO4 or Chelant products

Recommended treatment is polymer/sulfite
(CorTrol* IS102)
No morpholine-containing products for pressures
less than 25 psig.
66 /
GE /
* Trademark of General Electric Company; may be registered in one or more countries.
Steam To Steam
Generally for Clean Steam
generation
Hospital sterilizers, Humidification
steam
67 /
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Unfired Clean Steam

Generators
Caution - Demineralized make-up strongly

recommended as there is no chemical treatment. Do
not use NaZ or chloride-containing MU with stainless
steel generators
68 /
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The Gauge Glass Indicates the

Level of Water in the Boiler
69 /
GE /
Gauge Glass Erosion

There is only 1 Cause - High Velocity
Above water level - high velocity of
condensate formed in the piping above the
gauge glass
At the bottom of a round gauge glass - high
velocity flow when blown down.
Externally - high velocity flow due to gasket
leakage
70 /
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Gauge Glass Erosion

Recommendations
Round glasses should be borosilicate glass if not
replace
If the round glass is borosilicate then replace it
with a flat type of gauge glass
If a flat type gauge glass is eroding install a mica
shield between the glass and the water
Mica is very insoluble, impervious material that will
protect the glass and will not interfere with the optical
properties.
71 /
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Bottom Blowdown Sequence
Quic
k
Slo
w
72 /
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Bottom BD Valve Sequence

Open Valve B (Quick Opening)
Open Valve A (Slow Opening)
Close Valve A
Close Valve B
73 /
GE /

Boiler Fundamentals

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Boiler Fundamentals

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Boiler Fundamentals

Energy Relationships, Efficiency &

2009, General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Boiler Efficiency and Energy

It is important to understand your customer & prospects fuel

There are often opportunities for energy savings in low-pressure

Calculating Boiler Efficiency

(BTUs in Fuel) - (BTUs lost up stack)

Typical Fuel-to Steam

Older package boilers (pre-73) - 60 - 80%

Typical Fuel-to Steam

Heating Surface Area-to-Steam Capacity

4 - 6 ft2 = 1 BHP = 34.5 pph steam

Other Fuel Types

Sawdust (15% moisture)

500,000,000 lbs steam/yr

Fuel cost to produce 1 million lbs of steam

Boiler Water Treatment Costs

Boiler Water Treatment Costs

Typical Boiler Plant Cost Factors

Water Treatment Chemicals 1.5%

Boiler Water Treatment Costs

Fuel costs = $ 4.29 million

Boiler Water Treatment Costs

Preserving design efficiency & maintenance

Cost of efficiency loss - $4.29 MM/yr fuel

Operational Factors Which

Effective insulation of steam lines

Operational Factors Which

Impact of Effective Boiler Water

Minimize boiler blowdown

Impact of Effective Boiler Water

Minimize steam leaks

Energy Loss (%)

Potential Energy Loss Versus

Scale Thickness (Inches)

High Iron Content

Heat Transfer Percentage

Furnace Water Walls

Common Package Boilers

Typical Components Of Package

Optional components (+/-):

Note - Downcomer or supply tubes are those

D Frame Gas Passes

Cleaver Brooks Package

Bryant Flex Tube

Miura Compact WT Boilers

Typical Combined Cycle

Steam Separation Equipment

Steam Separation Equipment

99% Steam Quality typical in low pressure

Entrained boiler water contains solids

More on this coming up

Package Watertube Boiler

Primary Steam Separation

Firetube Boiler Designs

Decreasing cross sectional area of each

Watertube vs. Firetube Boilers

Not All Coil Boilers Are