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Irreversible reactions
Most chemical reactions are considered irreversible
the products that are made cannot readily be changed
back into their reactants.

For example, when wood burns

it is impossible to turn it back
into unburnt wood again!

Similarly, when magnesium

reacts with hydrochloric acid
to form magnesium chloride
and hydrogen, it is not easy
to reverse the reaction and
obtain the magnesium.

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What are reversible reactions?
Reversible reactions occur when the backwards reaction
(products reactants) takes place relatively easily under
certain conditions. The products turn back into the reactants.

A + B C + D

(reactants) (products)

For example, during a reversible reaction reactants A

and B react to make products C and D.

However, products C and D can also undergo the reverse

reaction, and react together to form reactants A and B.

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Reversible and irreversible reactions
What kind of reactions are reversible and irreversible?

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Reversible biochemical reactions
Many biochemical reactions (those that take place inside
organisms) are reversible.

For example, in the lungs, oxygen binds to haemoglobin

(Hb) in red blood cells to create oxyhaemoglobin.

When the red blood cells are transported to tissues, the

oxyhaemoglobin dissociates back to haemoglobin and
oxygen.

Hb + 4O2 Hb.4O2

There are also some very important industrial reactions,

like the Haber process, that are reversible.

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Heating copper sulfate

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Heating ammonium chloride
An ammonium salt can be made by reacting ammonia
with an acid. Some of the salt will decompose back into
the reactants when heated.
hydrogen ammonium
ammonia + chloride chloride
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) NH4Cl (s)

NH4Cl reforms in
NH4Cl decomposes the cooler part
back into NH3 and of the test tube
HCl gases when
heated

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Reversible or irreversible?

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What is dynamic equilibrium?
In some reversible reactions, the forward and backward
reactions largely occur in the same conditions and at the
same rate.
These reactions are said to be in dynamic equilibrium
there is no overall change in the amount of products and
reactants, even though the reactions are ongoing.

reactant A reactant B product

Dynamic equilibrium can only take place in a closed system,

otherwise the products would escape.

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What happens in dynamic equilibrium?
What is special about the forward and backward reactions
at dynamic equilibrium?

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Setting dynamic equilibrium
The position of dynamic
equilibrium is not always at a
half-way point, i.e. when there are
equal amounts of products and
reactants. It may be at a position
where there are mainly reactants
with a little product, or vice versa.
The position of equilibrium is influenced by two main factors:
temperature
concentration (or pressure for reactions involving gases)

Adding a catalyst speeds up the time it takes to reach

equilibrium, but does not change the position of equilibrium.

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True or false?

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 Opposing change
Whenever a change is made to a reversible reaction in
dynamic equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to try and
oppose the change.

Condition Effect
Temperature Increasing the temperature shifts the
equilibrium in the direction that takes in heat.

Concentration Increasing the concentration of a substance

shifts the equilibrium in the direction that
produces less of that substance.
Pressure Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium
in the direction that produces less gas.

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Exothermic and endothermic reactions
All reactions are exothermic (give out heat) in one direction
and endothermic (take in heat) in the other.

If the temperature is increased:

equilibrium shifts to decrease the temperature
equilibrium shifts in the endothermic direction

If the temperature is decreased:

equilibrium shifts to increase the temperature
equilibrium shifts in the exothermic direction

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Opposing changes in temperature
Nitrogen dioxide is in constant equilibrium with dinitrogen
tetroxide. The forward reaction is exothermic and the
backwards reaction is endothermic.

nitrogen dioxide dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2 (g) N2O4 (g)

What will happen if the temperature is increased?

The equilibrium will shift to decrease the temperature,
i.e. to the left (endothermic).
More NO2 will be produced.
If the temperature is decreased, more N2O4 will be produced.

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Concentration and equilibrium
Changing the concentration of a substance affects the
equilibrium of reversible reactions involving solutions.

increasing the equilibrium shifts to

concentration of = decrease the amount of
substance A substance A

decreasing the equilibrium shifts to

concentration of = increase the amount of
substance A substance A

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 Opposing changes in concentration (1)
Bismuth chloride reacts with water to produce a white
precipitate of bismuth oxychloride and hydrochloric acid.

bismuth bismuth hydrochloric

chloride
+ water
oxychloride
+ acid
BiCl3 (aq) + H2O (l) BiOCl (s) + 2HCl (aq)

What will happen if more H2O is added?

The equilibrium will shift to decrease the amount of
water, i.e. to the right.
More BiOCl and HCl will be produced.

If H2O is removed, more BiCl3 and H2O will be produced.

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Opposing changes in concentration (2)
Chlorine gas reacts with iodine chloride to produce
iodine trichloride.

iodine iodine
chlorine + chloride trichloride
Cl2 (g) + ICl (l) ICl3 (s)

pale green brown yellow

What effect will adding more Cl2 It will become
have on the colour of the mixture? more yellow.
What effect will removing Cl2 It will become
have on the colour of the mixture? more brown.

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Pressure and equilibrium
Changing the pressure has an effect on the equilibrium of
reversible reactions involving gases.

If the pressure is increased:

equilibrium shifts to decrease the pressure
equilibrium shifts in the direction of fewest
molecules

If the pressure is decreased:

equilibrium shifts to increase the pressure
equilibrium shifts in the direction of most
molecules

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Opposing changes in pressure
Nitrogen dioxide is in constant equilibrium with dinitrogen
tetroxide. Two molecules of nitrogen dioxide react to form
one molecule of dinitrogen tetroxide.

nitrogen dioxide dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2 (g) N2O4 (g)

What will happen if the pressure is increased?

The equilibrium will shift to reduce the number of
molecules, i.e. to the right (only 1 molecule).
More N2O4 will be produced.

If the pressure is decreased, more NO2 will be produced.

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Dynamic equilibrium and change

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What is ammonia?
Ammonia is an important compound
in the manufacture of fertilizer and
other chemicals such as cleaning
fluids and floor waxes.
It is made industrially by reacting
nitrogen with hydrogen in the Haber
process. It is a reversible reaction,
so it never goes to completion.
Why is this a problem for companies
making ammonia?

nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

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The Haber process

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What is yield?
The amount of product made in a reaction is called the
yield and is usually expressed as a percentage.

The yield of ammonia produced by the Haber process

depends on the temperature and pressure of the reaction.
ammonia yield (%)

pressure (atm)
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What is the Haber compromise?
The highest yield of ammonia
is theoretically produced by
using a low temperature and
a high pressure.
In practice, these conditions
are not used. Why?
Lowering the temperature slows down the rate of reaction.
This means it takes longer for ammonia to be produced.
Increasing the pressure means stronger, more expensive
equipment is needed. This increases the cost of producing
the ammonia.
A compromise is reached to make an acceptable yield in
a reasonable timeframe while keeping costs down.
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Temperature, pressure and yield

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Changing the yield of ammonia

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The Haber compromise
To produce a high yield of ammonia, but with a fast rate
of reaction and without the need for overly expensive
equipment, the Haber process is carried out at 450 C
and 200 atmospheres.

The most important factor in

deciding what conditions to use is
therefore not yield, but total cost.

What costs are involved in

the industrial production of
ammonia?
raw materials energy
equipment wages

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Maximizing productivity
What else can be done to maximise productivity in the
manufacture of ammonia?

An iron catalyst is used to increase the rate of

reaction. It speeds up both the forward and backward
reaction, so the position of equilibrium is not affected.

The ammonia is cooled, liquefied and then removed

as it is produced. This causes the equilibrium to shift to
the right to produce more ammonia.

Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled and

given another chance to react.

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Temperature, pressure and yield

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Stages of the Haber process

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 Glossary

closed system A system in which reactants and

products cannot be added or removed once the reaction has
begun.
dynamic An equilibrium in which the forward and
backward reactions take place at the same rate, so no overall
change takes place.
Haber process The industrial-scale process for making
ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen.
irreversible A reaction that is impossible or very difficult
to reverse.
reversible A reaction in which the product(s) can be
turned back into the reactants.
yield The amount of product obtained from a reaction,
usually expressed as a percentage.

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Anagrams

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Multiple-choice quiz

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