Lecture PowerPoint

Chemistry
The Molecular Nature of
Matter and Change
Sixth Edition

Martin S. Silberberg

16-1 Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Chapter 16

Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of

Chemical Reactions

16-2
 Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions

16.1 Focusing on Reaction Rate

16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate

16.3 The Rate Law and Its Components

16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time

16.5 Theories of Chemical Kinetics

16.6 Reaction Mechanisms: The Steps from Reactant to

Product

16.7 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Reaction

16-3
 Figure 16.1 A faster reaction (top) and a slower reaction (bottom).

16-4
 Figure 16.2 The wide range of reaction rates.

16-5
 Factors That Influence Reaction Rate
Particles must collide in order to react.
The higher the concentration of reactants, the greater
the reaction rate.
A higher concentration of reactant particles allows a greater
number of collisions.
The physical state of the reactants influences reaction
rate.
Substances must mix in order for particles to collide.
The higher the temperature, the greater the reaction
rate.
At higher temperatures particles have more energy and therefore
collide more often and more effectively.

16-6
 Figure 16.3 The effect of surface area on reaction rate.

A hot steel nail glows feebly The same mass of steel wool
when placed in O2. bursts into flame.

16-7
 Figure 16.4 Sufficient collision energy is required for a
reaction to occur.

16-8
 Expressing the Reaction Rate

Reaction rate is measured in terms of the changes in

concentrations of reactants or products per unit time.

For the general reaction A B, we measure the

concentration of A at t1 and at t2:
change in concentration of A conc A2 - conc A1 A]
Rate = =- =-
change in time t2 - t1 t

Square brackets indicate a concentration in moles per liter.

The negative sign is used because the concentration of A

is decreasing. This gives the rate a positive value.

16-9
 Table 16.1 Concentration of O3 at Various Times in its
Reaction with C2H4 at 303 K

Concentration of O3
Time (s) (mol/L)
0.0 3.20x10-5 [C2H4]
10.0 rate = -
2.42x10-5 t
20.0 1.95x10-5 [O3]
=-
30.0 1.63x10-5 t
40.0 1.40x10-5
50.0 1.23x10-5
60.0 1.10x10-5

16-10
 Figure 16.5 Three types of reaction rates for the reaction of O 3
and C2H4.

16-11
 Figure 16.6A Plots of [reactant] and [product] vs. time.

C2H4 + O3 C2H4O + O2

[O2] increases just as fast as

[C2H4] decreases.

[C2H4] [O3]
Rate = - =-
t t
[C2H4O] [O2]
= =
t t

16-12
 Figure 16.6B Plots of [reactant] and [product] vs. time.
H2 + I2 2HI
[HI] increases twice as
fast as [H2] decreases.

[H2] [I2] 1 [HI]

Rate = - =- =
t t 2 t

[IH] [H2] [I2]

Rate = = -2 = -2
t t t

The expression for the rate of a reaction

and its numerical value depend on which
substance serves as the reference.

16-13
 In general, for the reaction

aA + bB cC + dD

where a, b, c, and d are the coefficients for the balanced

equation, the rate is expressed as:

[A] 1 [B] = 1 [C]

rate = -
1
=- = 1 [D]
a t b t c t d t

16-14
 Sample Problem 16.1 Expressing Rate in Terms of Changes in
Concentration with Time
PROBLEM: Hydrogen gas has a nonpolluting combustion product
(water vapor). It is used as a fuel abord the space shuttle
and in earthbound cars with prototype engines:
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
(a) Express the rate in terms of changes in [H2], [O2], and
[H2O] with time.
(b) When [O2] is decreasing at 0.23 mol/Ls, at what rate is
[H2O] increasing?
PLAN: We choose O2 as the reference because its coefficient is 1. For
every molecule of O2 that disappears, two molecules of H2
disappear, so the rate of [O2] decrease is the rate of [H2]
decrease. Similarly, the rate at which [O2] decreases is the rate
at which [H2O] increases.

16-15
 Sample Problem 16.1

SOLUTION:
[O2] 1 [H2] 1 [H2O]
(a) Rate = - =- =
t 2 t 2 t

(b) Calculating the rate of change of [H2O]:

1 [H2O] [O2]
=- = -(-0.23 mol/Ls)
2 t t

[H2O]
= 2(0.23 mol/Ls) = 0.46 mol/Ls
t

16-16
 The Rate Law

For any general reaction occurring at a fixed temperature

aA + bB cC + dD

Rate = k[A]m[B]n

The term k is the rate constant, which is specific for a

given reaction at a given temperature.

The exponents m and n are reaction orders and are

determined by experiment.
The values of m and n are not necessarily related in any way to
the coefficients a and b.

16-17
 Reaction Orders
A reaction has an individual order with respect to or in
each reactant.
For the simple reaction A products:

If the rate doubles when [A] doubles, the rate depends on

[A]1 and the reaction is first order with respect to A.

If the rate quadruples when [A] doubles, the rate depends

on [A]2 and the reaction is second order with respect to [A].

If the rate does not change when [A] doubles, the rate does
not depend on [A], and the reaction is zero order with
respect to A.

16-18
 Figure 16.7 Plots of reactant concentration, [A], vs. time for
first-, second-, and zero-order reactions.

16-19
 Figure 16.8 Plots of rate vs. reactant concentration, [A], for
first-, second-, and zero-order reactions.

16-20
 Individual and Overall Reaction Orders
For the reaction 2NO(g) + 2H2(g) N2(g) + 2H2O(g):
The rate law is rate = k[NO]2[H2]
The reaction is second order with respect to NO, first
order with respect to H2 and third order overall.

Note that the reaction is first order with respect to H2

even though the coefficient for H2 in the balanced
equation is 2.
Reaction orders must be determined from experimental
data and cannot be deduced from the balanced
equation.

16-21
 Sample Problem 16.2 Determining Reaction Orders from Rate
Laws
PROBLEM: For each of the following reactions, use the give rate law
to determine the reaction order with respect to each
reactant and the overall order.
(a) 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g); rate = k[NO]2[O2]
(b) CH3CHO(g) CH4(g) + CO(g); rate = k[CH3CHO]3/2
(c) H2O2(aq) + 3I-(aq) + 2H+(aq) I3-(aq) + 2H2O(l); rate = k[H2O2][I-]

PLAN: We inspect the exponents in the rate law, not the coefficients
of the balanced equation, to find the individual orders. We add
the individual orders to get the overall reaction order.

SOLUTION:
(a) The exponent of [NO] is 2 and the exponent of [O2] is 1, so the
reaction is second order with respect to NO, first order
with respect to O2 and third order overall.

16-22
 Sample Problem 16.2

(b) The reaction is 3 order in CH3CHO and 3 order overall.

2 2

(c) The reaction is first order in H2O2, first order in I-, and
second order overall. The reactant H+ does not appear in
the rate law, so the reaction is zero order with respect to H+.

16-23
 Determining Reaction Orders

For the general reaction A + 2B C + D,

the rate law will have the form
Rate = k[A]m[B]n

To determine the values of m and n, we run a series of

experiments in which one reactant concentration
changes while the other is kept constant, and we
measure the effect on the initial rate in each case.

16-24
 Table 16.2 Initial Rates for the Reaction between A and B

Initial Rate Initial [A] Initial [B]

Experiment (mol/Ls) (mol/L) (mol/L)
1 1.75x10-3 2.50x10-2 3.00x10-2
2 3.50x10-3 5.00x10-2 3.00x10-2
3 3.50x10-3 2.50x10-2 6.00x10-2
4 7.00x10-3 5.00x10-2 6.00x10-2

[B] is kept constant for experiments 1 and 2, while [A] is doubled.

Then [A] is kept constant while [B] is doubled.

16-25
 Finding m, the order with respect to A:
We compare experiments 1 and 2, where [B] is kept
constant but [A] doubles:

Rate 2 k[A] m [B] n m

[A] 2 [A]2 m
2 2 = =
= m n m
Rate 1 k[A] 1 [B] 1 [A]1
[A]1
m
3.50x10-3 mol/Ls 5.00x10-2 mol/L
=
1.75x10 mol/Ls
-3
2.50x10-2 mol/L

Dividing, we get 2.00 = (2.00)m so m = 1

16-26
 Finding n, the order with respect to B:
We compare experiments 3 and 1, where [A] is kept
constant but [B] doubles:

Rate 3 k[A] m [B] n n

[B] 3 [B]3 n
3 3 = =
= m n n
Rate 1 k[A] 1 [B] 1 [B]1
[B]1
m
3.50x10-3 mol/Ls 6.00x10-2 mol/L
=
1.75x10 mol/Ls
-3
3.00x10-2 mol/L

Dividing, we get 2.00 = (2.00)n so n = 1

16-27
 Table 16.3 Initial Rates for the Reaction between O2 and NO

O2(g) + 2NO(g) 2NO2(g) Rate = k[O2]m[NO]n

Initial Reactant
Concentrations (mol/L)
Initial Rate
Experiment (mol/Ls) [O2] [NO]
1 3.21x10-3 1.10x10-2 1.30x10-2
2 6.40x10-3 2.20x10-2 1.30x10-2
3 12.48x10-3 1.10x10-2 2.60x10-2
4 9.60x10-3 3.30x10-2 1.30x10-2
5 28.8x10-3 1.10x10-2 3.90x10-2

16-28
 Finding m, the order with respect to O2:
We compare experiments 1 and 2, where [NO] is kept
constant but [O2] doubles:
Rate 2 k[O2] m [NO] n [O2] m [O2]2 m
= 2 2 2 =
m n = m
Rate 1 k[O2] 1 [NO] 1 [O2] 1 [O2]1
m
6.40x10-3 mol/Ls 2.20x10-2 mol/L
=
3.21x10-3mol/Ls 1.10x10-2 mol/L

Dividing, we get 1.99 = (2.00)m or 2 = 2m, so m = 1

The reaction is first order with respect to O2.

16-29
 Sometimes the exponent is not easy to find by inspection.
In those cases, we solve for m with an equation of the form
a = bm:
log a log 1.99
m= = = 0.993
log b log 2.00

This confirms that the reaction is first order with respect to O 2.

Reaction orders may be positive integers, zero, negative integers, or

fractions.

16-30
 Finding n, the order with respect to NO:
We compare experiments 1 and 3, where [O2] is kept
constant but [NO] doubles:
n
Rate 3 [NO]3 n
= 12.8x10-3 mol/Ls 2.60x10-2 mol/L
=
Rate 1 [NO]1 3.21x10-3mol/Ls 1.30x10-2 mol/L

Dividing, we get 3.99 = (2.00)n or 4 = 2n, so n = 2.

log a log 3.99
Alternatively: n= = = 2.00
log b log 2.00

The reaction is second order with respect to NO.

The rate law is given by: rate = k[O2][NO]2

16-31
 Sample Problem 16.3 Determining Reaction Orders from Rate Data

PROBLEM: Many gaseous reactions occur in a car engine and exhaust

system. One of these is
NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g) rate = k[NO2]m[CO]n
Use the following data to determine the individual and
overall reaction orders:

Initial Rate Initial [NO2] Initial

Experiment (mol/Ls) (mol/L) [CO]
(mol/L)
1 0.0050 0.10 0.10
2 0.080 0.40 0.10
3 0.0050 0.10 0.20

16-32
 Sample Problem 16.3

PLAN: We need to solve the general rate law for m and for n and
then add those orders to get the overall order. We proceed by
taking the ratio of the rate laws for two experiments in which
only the reactant in question changes concentration.
SOLUTION:
To calculate m, the order with respect to NO2, we compare
experiments 1 and 2:
m m
rate 2 k [NO2]m2[CO]n2 [NO2] 2 0.080 0.40
= = =
rate 1 k [NO ] [CO]
m
2 1
n
1 [NO2] 1 0.0050 0.10
16 = (4.0)m so m = 2

The reaction is second order in NO2.

16-33
 Sample Problem 16.3

To calculate n, the order with respect to CO, we compare experiments

1 and 3:
n n
rate 3 k [NO2]m3[CO]n3 [CO] 3 0.0050 0.20
= = =
rate 1 k [NO ] [CO]
m
2 1
n
1 [CO] 1 0.0050 0.10

1.0 = (2.0)n so n = 0

The reaction is zero order in CO.

rate = k[NO2]2[CO]0 or rate = k[NO2]2

16-34
 Sample Problem 16.4 Determining Reaction Orders from Molecular
Scenes
PROBLEM: At a particular temperature and volume, two gases, A (red)
and B (blue), react. The following molecular scenes
represent starting mixtures for four experiments:

Expt no: 1 2 3 4
Initial rate (mol/Ls) 0.50x10-4 1.0x10-4 2.0x10-4 ?
(a) What is the reaction order with respect to A? With respect to B?
The overall order?
(b) Write the rate law for the reaction.
(c) Predict the initial rate of experiment 4.
PLAN: We find the individual reaction orders by seeing how a change
in each reactant changes the rate. Instead of using
concentrations we count the number of particles.
16-35
 Sample Problem 16.4

SOLUTION:
(a) For reactant A (red):
Experiments 1 and 2 have the same number of particles of B, but
the number of particles of A doubles. The rate doubles. Thus the
order with respect to A is 1.
For reactant B (blue):
Experiments 1 and 3 show that when the number of particles of B
doubles (while A remains constant), the rate quadruples. The
order with respect to B is 2.
The overall order is 1 + 2 = 3.

(b) Rate = k[A][B]2

(c) Between experiments 3 and 4, the number of particles of A

doubles while the number of particles of B does not change. The
rate should double, so rate = 2 x 2.0x10-4 = 4.0x10-4mol/Ls

16-36
 Table 16.4 Units of the Rate Constant k for Several Overall
Reaction Orders

Overall
Reaction Units of k
General formula:
Order (t in seconds)
L order-1
0 mol/Ls
(or mol L-1s-1) mol
Units of k =
1 1/s (or s )
-1
unit of t
2 L/mols
(or L mol-1s-1)
3 L2/mol2s
(or L2 mol-2s-1)

The value of k is easily determined from experimental rate

data. The units of k depend on the overall reaction order.

16-37
 Figure 16.9 Information sequence to determine the kinetic
parameters of a reaction.

Series of plots of
concentration vs.
time

Determine slope of tangent at t0 for

each plot.
Initial rates
Compare initial rates when [A] changes and
[B] is held constant (and vice versa).
Reaction
orders Substitute initial rates, orders, and
concentrations into rate = k[A]m[B]n, and
solve for k.
Rate constant (k)
and actual rate law

16-38
 Integrated Rate Laws

An integrated rate law includes time as a variable.

First-order rate equation:
rate = - [A] = k [A] ln
[A]0
= - kt
t [A]t
Second-order rate equation:
1 1
rate = - [A] = k [A]2 - = kt
t [A]t [A]0
Zero-order rate equation:

rate = - [A] = k [A]0 [A]t - [A]0 = - kt

t

16-39
 Sample Problem 16.5 Determining the Reactant Concentration
after a Given Time
PROBLEM: At 1000oC, cyclobutane (C4H8) decomposes in a first-order
reaction, with the very high rate constant of 87 s-1, to two
molecules of ethylene (C2H4).
(a) If the initial C4H8 concentration is 2.00 M, what is the
concentration after 0.010 s?
(b) What fraction of C4H8 has decomposed in this time?

PLAN: We must find the concentration of cyclobutane at time t, [C4H8]t.

The problem tells us the reaction is first-order, so we use the
integrated first-order rate law:
[C4H8 ]0
ln = - kt
[C4H8 ]t

16-40
 Sample Problem 16.5

SOLUTION:
[C4H8 ]0 2.00 mol/L
(a) ln = - kt ln = (87 s-1)(0.010 s) = 0.87
[C4H8 ]t [C4H8 ]t
2.00 mol/L
= e0.87 = 2.4
[C4H8 ]t

[C2H4] = 2.00 mol/L = 0.83 mol/L

2.4

(b) Finding the fraction that has decomposed after 0.010 s:

[C4H8]0 - [C4H8]t 2.00 M - 0.87 M
= = 0.58
[C4H8]0 2.00 M

16-41
 Figure 16.10A Graphical method for finding the reaction order
from the integrated rate law.

First-order reaction

integrated rate law

ln [A]0 = - kt
[A]t

straight-line form
ln[A]t = -kt + ln[A]0

A plot of ln [A] vs. time gives a straight line for a first-order reaction.

16-42
 Figure 16.10B Graphical method for finding the reaction order
from the integrated rate law.

Second-order reaction
integrated rate law
1 1
- = kt
[A]t [A]0

straight-line form
1 1
= kt +
[A]t [A]0

1
A plot of vs. time gives a straight line for a second-order reaction.
[A]

16-43
 Figure 16.10C Graphical method for finding the reaction order
from the integrated rate law.

Zero-order reaction

integrated rate law

[A]t - [A]0 = - kt

straight-line form
[A]t = - kt + [A]0

A plot of [A] vs. time gives a straight line for a first-order reaction.

16-44
 Figure 16.11 Graphical determination of the reaction order for the
decomposition of N2O5.

The concentration data is used to

construct three different plots. Since the
plot of ln [N2O5] vs. time gives a straight
line, the reaction is first order.

16-45
 Reaction Half-life

The half-life (t1/2) for a reaction is the time taken for the
concentration of a reactant to drop to half its initial value.
For a first-order reaction, t1/2 does not depend on the
starting concentration.
t1/2 = ln 2 = 0.693
k k

The half-life for a first-order reaction is a constant.

Radioactive decay is a first-order process. The half-life for a
radioactive nucleus is a useful indicator of its stability.

16-46
 Figure 16.12 A plot of [N2O5] vs. time for three reaction half-lives.

for a first-order process

ln 2 0.693
t1/2 = =
k k

16-47
 Sample Problem 16.6 Using Molecular Scenes to Find Quantities
at Various Times
PROBLEM: Substance A (green) decomposes to two other
substances, B (blue) and C (yellow), in a first-order
gaseous reaction. The molecular scenes below show a
portion of the reaction mixture at two different times:

(a) Draw a similar molecular scene of the reaction mixture at t = 60.0

s.
(b) Find the rate constant of the reaction.
(c) If the total pressure (Ptotal) of the mixture is 5.00 atm at 90.0 s, what
is the partial pressure of substance B (PB)?
16-48
 Sample Problem 16.6

SOLUTION:
(a) After 30.0 s, the number of particles of A has decreased from 8
to 4; since [A] has halved in this time, 30.0 s is the half-life of
the reaction. After 60.0 s another half-life will have passed, and
the number of A particles will have halved again. Each A
particle forms one B and one C particle.

t = 60.0 s

16-49
 Sample Problem 16.6

(b) The rate constant k is determined using the formula for t1/2 of a
first-order reaction:
0.693 0.693 0.693
t1/2 = so k= = = 2.31 x 10-2 s-1
k t1/2 30.0 s

(c) After 90.0 s, three half-lives will have passed. The number of A
particles will have halved once again, and each A will produced one
B and one C. There will be 1 A, 7 B and 7 C particles.
7
mole fraction of B, XB = = 0.467
1+7+7

PB = XB x Ptotal = 0.467 x 5.00 atm = 2.33 atm

16-50
 Sample Problem 16.7 Determining the Half-Life of a First-Order
Reaction
PROBLEM: Cyclopropane is the smallest cyclic hydrocarbon.
Because its 60 bond angles allow poor orbital overlap, its
bonds are weak. As a result, it is thermally unstable and
rearranges to propene at 1000C via the following first-
order reaction:

The rate constant is 9.2 s-1, (a) What is the half-life of the reaction?
(b) How long does it take for the concentration of cyclopropane to
reach one-quarter of the initial value?
PLAN: The reaction is first order, so we find t1/2 using the half-life
equation for a first order reaction. Once we know t1/2 we can
calculate the time taken for the concentration to drop to 0.25 of
its initial value.

16-51
 Sample Problem 16.7

SOLUTION:
0.693 0.693
(a) t1/2 = = = 0.075 s
k 9.2 s-1

(b) For the initial concentration to drop to one-quarter of its value

requires 2 half-lives to pass.

Time = 2(0.075 s) = 0.15 s

16-52
 Half-life Equations

For a first-order reaction, t1/2 does not depend on the initial

concentration.
For a second-order reaction, t1/2 is inversely proportional
to the initial concentration:
1
t1/2 = (second order process; rate = k[A]2)
k[A]0

For a zero-order reaction, t1/2 is directly proportional to

the initial concentration:
[A]0
t1/2 = (zero order process; rate = k)
2k0

16-53
 Table 16.5 An Overview of Zero-Order, First-Order, and
Simple Second-Order Reactions
Zero Order First Order Second Order
Rate law rate = k rate = k[A] rate = k[A]2
Units for k mol/Ls 1/s L/mols
Half-life [A]0 ln 2 1
2k k k[A]0
Integrated rate law [A]t = -kt + [A]0 ln[A]t = -kt + ln[A]0 1 1
= kt +
in straight-line form [A]t [A]0
1
Plot for straight line [A]t vs. t ln[A]t vs. t vs. t
[A]t
Slope, y intercept -k, [A]0 -k, ln[A]0 k, 1
[A]0

16-54
 Collision Theory and Concentration

The basic principle of collision theory is that particles

must collide in order to react.

An increase in the concentration of a reactant leads to

a larger number of collisions, hence increasing reaction
rate.

The number of collisions depends on the product of

the numbers of reactant particles, not their sum.
Concentrations are multiplied in the rate law, not added.

16-55
 Figure 16.13 The number of possible collisions is the product,
not the sum, of reactant concentrations.

add another
6 collisions

4 collisions

add another

9 collisions
16-56
 Temperature and the Rate Constant

Temperature has a dramatic effect on reaction rate.

For many reactions, an increase of 10C will double or triple the rate.

Experimental data shows that k increases exponentially

as T increases. This is expressed in the Arrhenius
equation:
k = rate constant
k = Ae-Ea/RT A = frequency factor
Ea = activation energy

Higher T larger k increased rate

16-57
 Figure 16.14 Increase of the rate constant with temperature for
the hydrolysis of an ester.

Expt [Ester] [H2O] T (K) Rate k

(mol/Ls) (L/mols)
1 0.100 0.200 288 1.04x10-3 0.0521
2 0.100 0.200 298 2.20x10-3 0101
3 0.100 0.200 308 3.68x10-3 0.184
4 0.100 0.200 318 6.64x10-3 0.332

Reaction rate and k increase exponentially as T increases.

16-58
 Activation Energy

In order to be effective, collisions between particles

must exceed a certain energy threshold.

When particles collide effectively, they reach an

activated state. The energy difference between the
reactants and the activated state is the activation
energy (Ea) for the reaction.

The lower the activation energy, the faster the reaction.

Smaller Ea larger f larger k increased rate

16-59
 Figure 16.15 Energy-level diagram for a reaction.

Collisions must occur with This particular reaction is reversible

sufficient energy to reach an and is exothermic in the forward
activated state. direction.

16-60
 Temperature and Collision Energy

An increase in temperature causes an increase in the

kinetic energy of the particles. This leads to more
frequent collisions and reaction rate increases.

At a higher temperature, the fraction of collisions with

sufficient energy equal to or greater than Ea increases.
Reaction rate therefore increases.

16-61
 Figure 16.16 The effect of temperature on the distribution of
collision energies.

16-62
 Table 16.6 The Effect of Ea and T on the Fraction (f) of
Collisions with Sufficient Energy to Allow Reaction

Ea (kJ/mol) f (at T = 298 K)

50 1.70x10-9

75 7.03x10-14

100 2.90x10-18

T f (at Ea = 50 kJ/mol)

25C (298 K) 1.70x10-9

35C (308 K) 3.29x10-9

45C (318 K) 6.12x10-9

16-63
 Calculating Activation Energy

Ea can be calculated from the Arrhenius equation:

-Ea/RT Ea 1
k = Ae so ln k = ln A -
R T
straight-line form

If data is available at two different temperatures:

k2 Ea 1 1
ln =-
k1 R T2 T1

16-64
 Figure 16.17 Graphical determination of the activation energy.

Ea 1
ln k = ln A -
R T

16-65
 Sample Problem 16.8 Determining the Energy of Activation

PROBLEM: The decomposition of hydrogen iodide,

2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g), has rate constants of 9.51x10-9
L/mols at 500. K and 1.10x10-5 L/mols at 600. K.
Find Ea.
PLAN: We are given two rate constants and two temperatures, so we
can use the Arrhenius equation to solve for Ea.
SOLUTION:
-1
k E 1 1 k 1 1
ln 2 = - a so Ea = -R ln 2
k1 R T2 T1 k1 T2 T1
-1
ln 1.10x10-5 L/mols 1 1
Ea = -(8.314 J/molK)
9.51x10-9 L/mols 600.K 500. K

= 1.76x105 J/mol = 1.76x102 kJ/mol

16-66
 Molecular Structure and Reaction Rate

For a collision between particles to be effective, it must

have both sufficient energy and the appropriate relative
orientation between the reacting particles.

The term A in the Arrhenius equation is the frequency

factor for the reaction.
k = Ae -Ea/RT A = pZ p = orientation probability factor
Z = collision frequency

The term p is specific for each reaction and is related

to the structural complexity of the reactants.

16-67
 Figure 16.18 The importance of molecular orientation to an
effective collision.

NO(g) + NO3(g) 2NO2(g)

There is only one relative

orientation of these two
molecules that leads to an
effective collision.

16-68
 Transition State Theory

An effective collision between particles leads to the

formation of a transition state or activated complex.

The transition state is an unstable species that contains

partial bonds. It is a transitional species partway
between reactants and products.
Transition states cannot be isolated.

The transition state exists at the point of maximum

potential energy.
The energy required to form the transition state is the activation
energy.

16-69
 Figure 16.19 The transition state of the reaction between BrCH3
and OH-.
BrCH3 + OH- Br- + CH3OH

The transition state contains partial bonds (dashed) between C and

Br and between C and O. It has a trigonal bypyramidal shape.

16-70
 Figure 16.20 Depicting the reaction between BrCH3 and OH-.

16-71
 Figure 16.21 Reaction energy diagrams and possible transition
states for two reactions.

16-72
 Sample Problem 16.9 Drawing Reaction Energy Diagrams and
Transition States
PROBLEM: A key reaction in the upper atmosphere is
O3(g) + O(g) 2O2(g)
The Ea(fwd) is 19 kJ, and the Hrxn for the reaction as written
is -392 kJ. Draw a reaction energy diagram, predict a
structure for the transition state, and calculate Ea(rev).

PLAN: The reaction is highly exothermic (Hrxn = -392 kJ), so the

products are much lower in energy than the reactants. The
small Ea(fwd) (19 kJ) means that the energy of the reactants
lies only slightly below that of the transition state. We
calculate the value of Ea(rev) from the value of H and Ea(fwd).
To predict the transition state structure, we note that one O-O
bond of O3 breaks and a new O-O bond forms.

16-73
 Sample Problem 16.9

SOLUTION:
Hrxn = Ea(fwd) Ea(rev)

So Ea(rev) = + Ea(fwd) - Hrxn = 19 kJ (-392 kJ) = 411 kJ

Ea= 19 kJ
Potential Energy

O3+O transition state Ea(rev)= (392 + 19) kJ =

Hrxn = -392 kJ 411kJ

2O2

Reaction progress

16-74
 Reaction Mechanisms

The mechanism of a reaction is the sequence of single

reaction steps that make up the overall equation.
The individual steps of the reaction mechanism are called
elementary steps because each one describes a single
molecular event.
Each elementary step is characterized by its
molecularity, the number of particles involved in the
reaction.

The rate law for an elementary step can be deduced from

the reaction stoichiometry reaction order equals
molecularity for an elementary step only.

16-75
 Table 16.7 Rate Laws for General Elementary Steps

Elementary Step Molecularity Rate Law

A product Unimolecular Rate = [A]

2A product Bimolecular Rate = k[A]2

A+B product Bimolecular Rate = k[A][B]

2A + B product Termolecular Rate = k[A]2[B]

16-76
 Sample Problem 16.10 Determining Molecularity and Rate Laws
for Elementary Steps
PROBLEM: The following elementary steps are proposed for a
reaction mechanism:
(1) NO2Cl(g) NO2(g) + Cl(g)
(2) NO2Cl(g) + Cl(g) NO2(g) + Cl2(g)
(a) Write the overall balanced equation.
(b) Determine the molecularity of each step.
(c) Write the rate law for each step.

PLAN: We find the overall equation from the sum of the elementary
steps. The molecularity of each step equals the total number
of reactant particles. We write the rate law for each step
using the molecularities as reaction orders.

16-77
 Sample Problem 16.10

SOLUTION:
(a) Writing the overall balanced equation:

(1) NO2Cl(g) NO2(g) + Cl(g)

(2) NO2Cl(g) + Cl(g) NO2(g) + Cl2(g)
2NO2Cl(g) 2NO2(g) + Cl2(g)

(b) Step(1) is unimolecular.

Step(2) is bimolecular.

(c) rate1 = k1[NO2Cl]

rate2 = k2[NO2Cl][Cl]

16-78
 The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction

The slowest step in a reaction is the rate-determining

or rate-limiting step.
The reaction NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g)
has been proposed to occur by a two-step mechanism:
(1) NO2(g) + NO2(g) NO3(g) + NO(g) [slow; rate-determining]
(2) NO2(g) + CO(g) NO2(g) + CO2(g) [fast]

Observed rate law: rate = k[NO2]2

The rate law for the rate-determining step becomes

the rate law for the overall reaction.

16-79
 Correlating Mechanism with the Rate Law

A valid mechanism must meet three criteria:

The elementary steps must add up to the overall balanced equation.

The elementary steps must be reasonable.

The mechanism must correlate with the observed rate law.

A mechanism is a hypothesis we cannot prove it is

correct, but if it is consistent with the data, and can be used
to predict results accurately, it is a useful model for the
reaction.

16-80
 Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step
The overall reaction 2NO2(g) + F2(g) 2NO2F(g) has an experimental
rate law Rate = k[NO2][F2].
The accepted mechanism is
(1) NO2(g) + F2(g) NO2F(g) + F(g) [slow; rate determining]
(2) NO2(g) + F(g) NO2F(g) [fast]
2NO2(g) + F2(g) 2NO2F(g)

The elementary steps sum to the overall balanced equation:

Both steps are bimolecular and are therefore reasonable.

rate1 = k1[NO2[F2] Step 1 is the slow step, and rate1

rate2 = k2[NO2][F] correlates with the observed rate law.

The mechanism is therefore reasonable.

16-81
 Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step
The overall reaction 2NO (g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g) has an experimental
rate law Rate = k[NO]2[O2].
A proposed mechanism is
(1) NO(g) + O2(g) NO3(g) [fast]
(2) NO3(g) + NO(g) 2NO2(g) [slow; rate determining]
2NO (g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)

The elementary steps sum to the overall balanced equation:

Both steps are bimolecular and are therefore reasonable.

rate1(fwd) = k1[NO][O2] When equilibrium (1) has been established

rate1(rev) = k-1[NO3] rate1(fwd) = rate1(rev)
rate2 = k2[NO3][NO] k1[NO][O2] = k-1[NO3]

16-82
 k1
[NO3] = [NO][O2]
k-1

rate2 = k2[NO3][NO] = k2 k1 [NO][O2] [NO]

k-1

The ratio of rate constants is itself a constant, equal to the overall rate
constant for the reaction, so
rate2 = k[NO]2[O2] which is consistent with the observed rate law.

For any mechanism, only reactants involved up to and

including the slow (rate-determining) step appear in the
overall rate law.

16-83
 Figure 16.22 Reaction energy diagram for the two-step reaction of
(A) NO2 and F2 and of (B) NO and O2.

Each step in a multi-step reaction has its own transition state,

which occurs at the energy maximum for that step.

16-84
 Catalysis: Speeding up a Reaction

A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate

without itself being consumed in the reaction.

In general, a catalyst provides an alternative reaction

pathway that has a lower total activation energy than the
uncatalyzed reaction.

A catalyst will speed up both the forward and the reverse

reactions.

A catalyst does not affect either H or the overall yield for a

reaction.

16-85
 Figure 16.23 Reaction energy diagram for a catalyzed (green) and
uncatalyzed (red) process.

16-86
 Figure 16.24 The catalyzed decomposition of H2O2.
A homogeneous catalyst is in the same phase as the reaction mixture.

A small amount of NaBr is Oxygen gas forms quickly as Br-(aq)

added to a solution of H2O2. catalyzes the H2O2 decomposition; the
intermediate Br2 turns the solution orange.
16-87
 Figure 16.25 The metal-catalyzed hydrogenation of ethene.

A heterogeneous catalyst is in a different phase than the reaction mixture.

16-88
 Figure 16.26A Two models of enzyme action.

The lock-and-key model visualizes the enzyme active site

having a fixed shape. This shape matches the shape of its
substrate(s). The active site is therefore specific to its substrate.

16-89
 Figure 16.26B Two models of enzyme action.

The induced-fit model visualizes the enzyme active site

changing shape in order to bind its substrate(s) more
effectively. The active site is still selective towards certain
substrates.

16-90
 Chemical Connections
Figure B16.1 Satellite images of the increasing size of the
Antarctic ozone hole (purple).

16-91
 Chemical Connections
Figure B16.2 Reaction energy diagram for breakdown of O2
by Cl atoms. (Not drawn to scale.)

16-92