Introduction to Tensors

Dr. Atta ur Rehman Shah

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
HITEC University, Taxila Pakistan

Email: atta.engr@gmail.com
First Impression
Here is the first definition of tensor found on page 11 of Synges Tensor
Calculus.

This type of definition doesnt offer any understanding for a student who is
initially trying to find out what a tensor is.

The student will close the book and prefer to play a game on his mobile.

Hence I will try to start from the simple concepts of scalars and vectors and
guide towards Tensors.
Pre-requisites
What are scalars and vectors?

Scalars are just numbers (magnitude)

e.g. Temperature, mass, density etc.

Vectors are numbers with one direction.

e.g. Velocity, Force, Displacement
Pre-requisites
A vector can be multiplied with a scalar to obtain another vector with same
direction but different magnitude.

A vector can be multiplied to another vector to obtain a scalar. (Dot product)

A vector can be multiplied to another vector to obtain a vector perpendicular

to the plane first two vectors. (Cross product)

What if we want to change both magnitude and direction of a given vector?

(Not perpendicular as in cross product)

We need another entity

Introducing Tensors
Lets pause to introduce some terminology. We will rename the familiar quantities
in the following way:

Scalar: Tensor of rank 0. (magnitude only 1 component)

Vector: Tensor of rank 1. (magnitude and one direction 3 components)

This terminology is suggestive. Why stop at rank 1? Why not go onto rank 2, rank
3, and so on.

Dyad: Tensor of rank 2. (magnitude and two directions 3 2 = 9 components)

Triad: Tensor of rank 3. (magnitude and three directions 3 3 = 27 components)
Tensor of rank n. (magnitude and n-directions 3 n components)
Introducing Tensors
We will now merely state that:

if we form the inner product of a vector and a tensor of rank 2 (a

dyad), the result will be another vector with both a new
magnitude and a new direction.

A tensor of rank 2 is defined as a system that has a magnitude

and two directions associated with it. It has 9 components.

For now, we will use an example from classical electrodynamics

to illustrate the point just made.
Introducing Tensors
The magnetic flux density B in volt-sec/m2 and the magnetization H in Amp/m are
related through the permeability in H/m by the expression

B = H
For free space, is a scalar with value = 4 10-7 H/m.
Thus, the flux density and the magnetization in free space differ in magnitude but
not in direction.

In some exotic materials, however, the component atoms or molecules have

peculiar dipole properties that make these terms differ in both magnitude and
direction.
Introducing Tensors
In such materials, the scalar permeability is then replaced by
the tensor permeability , and we write, in place of the
previous equation:

B = H

The permeability is a tensor of rank 2.

Remember that B and H are both vectors, but they now differ
from one another in both magnitude and direction.
Introducing Tensors
Another classical example of the use of tensors in physics is Stress in a material
object.

dF = TdA

dF and dA are force and area respectively, both are vectors.

Thus, the stress T in the equation must be either a scalar or a tensor.

But there are two different types of stress: tensile stress and shear stress. (How can a
single denominate number represent both?)

We must conclude that stress is a tensor of rank 2 and that the force must be an
inner product of stress and area.
Introducing Tensors
In summary, notice that in the progression from single
number to scalar to vector to tensor, etc., information is
being added at every step.

The complexity of the physical situation being modeled

determines the rank of the tensor representation we must
choose.
Preliminary Mathematical Considerations
Dyad
Product
Let us consider two vectors:

Their dyad product UV will be:

Notice that, by setting u1v1 = 11, u1v2 = 12, etc., this dyad can be
rewritten as
Preliminary Mathematical Considerations
Dyad
Product
The scalar components ij can be arranged in the familiar
configuration of a 3x3 matrix:

Just as a matrix is generally not equal to its transpose, so

with dyads it is the case that the dyad product is not
commutative.
Preliminary Mathematical Considerations
Dyad
Multiplication
Using the known rules of matrix multiplication, we can, by extension, write the rules
associated with dyad multiplication.

In matrices, the results of pre- and post-multiplication are usually different; i.e.,
matrix multiplication does not, in general, commute. So in the case of dyad product,
it is not commutative.

Let the scalar components of dyad M be represented by the 3 3 matrix [ij] i, j = 1,

2, 3; then for scalar ; M = [ij] = [ij] = M

Similarly, the product of a dyad UV and a scalar is defined as

(UV) = (U)V = (U)V = U(V) = U(V) = (UV).
Preliminary Mathematical Considerations
Dyad
Multiplication
The inner product of a matrix M and a vector V The inner product of a dyad UV and a vector S

Let V (Vi) be a row vector with i = 1, 2, Pre-multiplication of a vector,

3

Post-multiplication of a vector,

Let V (Vj) now re-arranged as a

column vector,

Hence

It is clear that
Tensors of Rank > 2
Tensors of rank 2 result from dyad products of vectors.

In an entirely analogous way, tensors of rank 3 arise from triad

products, UVW.

tensors of rank n arise from n-ad products of vectors, UVW...AB.

In three-dimensional space, the number of components in each of

these systems is 3n.

The rules governing these higher rank objects are defined in the same
way as the rules developed above.
Important Question

IS EVERY SCALAR A TENSOR? (rank 0)

IS EVERY VECTOR A TENSOR? (rank 1)

Invariant Quantities
A quantity we can measure that do not depend upon our frame
of reference is called an invariant.

This condition must be met for a mathematical object to be a

tensor.

For example Temperature is a tensor but Distance is not a

tensor. Although both are scalars.

Similarly Displacement is a tensor but Position is not a tensor.

Although both are vectors.
Example
Displacement Vs
Position Vector
X2 X2

O X1 O X1

Position Vector OP Displacement vector OP

Position Vector: OPOP

Displacement: PQ = PQ
Specific Statements for Tensors per se
We now extend the properties and rules of operation for familiar objects scalars,
vectors, and matrices to tensors per se.

1. All scalars are not tensors, although all tensors of rank 0 are scalars.
2. All vectors are not tensors, although all tensors of rank 1 are vectors.
3. All dyads or matrices are not tensors, although all tensors of rank 2 are dyads or
matrices.
4. Tensors can be multiplied by other tensors to form new tensors.
5. The product of a tensor and a scalar (tensor of rank 0) is commutative.
6. The pre-multiplication of a given tensor by another tensor produces a different
result from post-multiplication; i.e., tensor multiplication in general is not
commutative.
Specific Statements for Tensors per se
7. The rank of a new tensor formed by the product of two other tensors is the sum of
their individual ranks.

8. The inner product of a tensor and a vector or of two tensors is not commutative.

9. The rank of a new tensor formed by the inner product of two other tensors is the
sum of their individual ranks minus 2.

10. A tensor of rank n in three-dimensional space has 3n components.

Re-examining Magnetic Permeability
Now we can see why the magnetic permeability must be a rank 2
tensor.

We use the tensor form; B = H

B and H are vectors (rank 1 tensors).

Rank of B must be sum of their individual ranks of and H minus

2.

1 = x + 1 2 x = 2 (where x is the rank of ).

Tensor Notation
Now we will learn what does the indices mean in a tensor notation.

In case of vectors it is clear to us that an index means its

component direction. e.g. F = (F1,F2,F3) in three direction in a
coordinate plane.

Since a vectors has only one direction so it has a single index.

In tensor notations it can be simply written as Fi . Where we can

take i as 1, 2 and 3. The coordinate system must be known.
Tensor Notation
But in a second rank tensor we have two indices for each component.

Stress is an example of 2nd rank tensor, which has nine components

as shown in the following figure.

How can we find direction of a component from its indices?

Tensor Notation
Lets take an example of 21.

To refer to a stress, two pieces of information are needed.

1. The direction of stress.
2. The orientation of the plane that the stress is acting on.

. The shear stress 21 could be referred to as:

The stress acting in the x1 direction on a surface that is oriented perpendicular to the
x2 direction."

. Thus two indices can give complete information about the components of a 2nd rank
tensor.
Tensor Notation
Summation
Summation
Convention
If an index letter appears twice in a term, summation with
respect to that index is implied over the dimensions of the
space. For example:
Tensor Notation
Summation
Summation
Convention
Summation can be expressed very simply with tensor
notations. For example:

Bs = st Ht

Summation is occurring over the repeated index, t. This

representation has become standard in the literature.

This convention is known as Einstein notation or Einstein

summation convention.
Tensor Notation
Transpose of a 2nd Rank
Tensor
The transpose of a 2nd rank tensor A is a 2nd rank tensor
that is written A. The components of A are defined by:
Aij = Aji

Trace of a 2nd Rank

Tensor
The trace of a tensor A is the scalar Aii. In other words,
trace A = Aii = A11 + A22 + A33
Kronecker Delta
The Kronecker delta, is a function of two variables, usually integers.
The function is 1 if the variables are equal, and 0 otherwise:

Example:

We can write an expression for the dot product as :

The above equation can be reduced and written as:

Kronecker Delta
Example:
How would we evaluate xixjij?

Or we can say xixjij = xixi = xi2

It means Kronecker delta changes the index of the nearest variable.

Hence ijxixj= xjxj = xj2
Del Operator ()
Del is an operator used in mathematics, in particular in
vector calculus, usually represented by the nabla symbol .

Itself it is a vector.

It denotes the standard derivative of a function.

Del Operator
Gradie
()
Gradie
nt
Gradient is the vector derivative of a scalar f . The result is a vector.

Divergen
ce
Divergence is the dot product of with a vector field . The result will
be scalar. If

Curl
Curl is the cross product of with a vector field . The result will be
vector. If
Covariance and Contravariance
At any point P, we can specify three local axes and three local planes
determined by these axes.

In accordance with strict definitions, the axes must be mutually

perpendicular and, by extension, so must the planes.

Now, choose three unit vectors at P such that each vector is tangent to
one of the axes.

Such a triple is usually designated (i, j, k).

V = i + j + k
Rectangular coordinates
Covariance and Contravariance
Now suppose that we had chosen unit vectors perpendicular to each
of the planes rather than tangent to each of the coordinate axes.

Lets do so and call the resulting triple (i*, j*, k*).

Again, any vector V at P can be written as:

V = *i* + *j* + *k*

Covariance and Contravariance
Our representation is satisfactory provided we ensure that:
i + j + k = *i* + *j* + *k*

It is apparent from geometry that the two unit vector triples comprise
the same set; i.e., that
i = i*
j = j*
k = k*.

Will This approach work in all cases??

NO
Covariance and Contravariance
To understand why the answer is NO, lets modify our Cartesian system

If the axes are no longer mutually orthogonal for example, so that they meet at
60.

(i, j, k) and (i*, j*, k*) are now two different sets of unit vectors.

i and i* now meet at an angle of 60, as do j and j*, and k and

k*.

Now they specify different sets of directions.

Quadray coordinates
Covariance and Contravariance
In the same manner in tensor analysis, we can specify two related but distinct sets of
unit vectors:

1. A set tangent to the local axes,

2. Another set perpendicular to the local coordinate surfaces.

. The first set is given the name contravariant; the second set is given the name
covariant.

. A vector can be referred to either choice, which is strictly a matter of expediency.

. A vector is obviously not affected by the choice.

. Covariant components are denoted with lower indices while Contravariant.