Computer Project Work

 Getting started with C++

Guided by:- Prepared by:-

M. Ravi Kiran (sir) K. Durga Prasad
T.G.T computer. X1 class
M.P.C.Computers
 INTRODUCTION
In 1980s bjarne Stroustrup decided to extend
the C language by adding some features
from his favourite language Simula 67.
Simula 67 was one of the earliest object
oriented language. Bjarne Stroustrup called it
“C with classes”.
Later Rick Mascitti renamed as C++. Ever
since its birth, C++ evolved to cope with
problems encountered by users, and though
discussions.
 C++ CHARACTER SET
 Character set is a set of valid characters that a language
can recognise. A character represents any letter, digit, or
any other sign.
Letters A-Z, a-z
Digits 0-9
Special Symbols Space + - * / ^ \ ( ) [ ] { } = !=
< > . ‘ “ $ , ; : % ! & ? _(underscore) # <= >= @
White Spaces Blank spaces, Horizontal tab, Carriage
return, New line, Form feed.
Other Characters C++ can process any of the 256
ASCII characters as data or as literals.
 TOKENS(LEXICAL UNITS)
The smallest individual unit in a program is
known as a Token or lexical unit.

Types of Tokens
 Keywords
 Identifiers
 Literals
 Punctuators
 Operators
 KEYWORDS
 Keywords are the words that convey a
special meaning to the language compiler.
These are reserved for special purpose
and must not be used as normal identifier
names.
 Some of the keywords in c++
asm continue float new signed try
auto default for operator sizeof typedef
break delete friend private static union
case do goto protected struct unsigned
catch double if public switch virtual
char else inline register template void
class enum int return this volatile
const extern long short throw while
 Identifiers
 Identifiers are names of the program
given by user.
Rules to write identifiers
1. Do not start with digits.
2. No special symbols are used except
_(underscore).
3. No spaces are used.
Examples:- myfile , date9_2_7_6
 Literals
 Literals (constants) are data items that
never change their value during a
program run.
Types of Literals:
1. Integer constant
2. Floating constants
3. Character constant
4. String literal
 Integer constant
 Integer constants are whole numbers
without any fractional part.

Three types of Integer constants

1. Decimal Integer constant
2. Octal Integer constant
3. Hexadecimal Integer constant
 Decimal Integer constant
 An integer constant consisting of a
sequence of digits is taken to be decimal
integer constant unless it begins with 0
(digit zero).
Example:- 1296, 5642, 12, +69,-
23,etc.,
 Octal Integer constant
 A sequence of digits starting with0(digit
zero) is taken to be an octal integer.
Example:-123, 456, etc.,
 Hexadecimal Integer constant
 A sequence of digits preceded by 0x or
0X is taken to be an hexadecimal integer.
Example:-4B6, A43,etc.,
 Floating Constants
 Floatingconstants are also called as Real
constants
Real constants are numbers having
fractional parts. These may be written in
one of the two forms called fractional form
or the exponent form.
Examples:-2.0, 3.5, 8.6, etc.,
 Character constants
 A Character constant is one character
enclosed in single quotes, as in ‘z’.

Examples:- ‘a’, ‘b’, etc.,

 Escape sequences
\a Audible sound
\b back space
\f Formfeed
\n Newline or Linefeed
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\v Vertical tab
\\ Backslash
\’ single quote
\” double quote
\? Question mark
\on Octal number
\xHn Hexadecimal number
\0 Null
 String Literals
 Multiple character constants are treated
as string literals.
Examples:-”a” , “ade”, etc.,
 Punctuators
 The following characters are used as
punctuators.
[ ] ( ) { } , ; : * … = #
 Brackets [ ] opening and closing brackets
indicate single and multidimensional array
subscripts.
 Parenthesis ( ) these indicate function
calls and function parameters.
 Braces { } these indicates the start and end of
a compound statement.
 Comma , it is used as separator in a function
argument list.
 Semicolon ; it is used as statement
terminator.
 Collon : it indicates a labeled statement.
 Asterisk * it is used for pointer declaration.
 Ellipsis … Ellipsis (...) are used in the formal
argument lists of the function prototype to
indicate a variable number of argument.
 Equal to sign = It is used for variable
initialisation and an assignment operator in
expressions.
 Pound sign # this sign is used for
preprocessor directive.
 Operators
 Operators are tokens that trigger some
computation when applied to variables and
other objects in an expression.
Types of operators
1. Unary operators
2. Binary operators
3. Ternary operators
 Unary operators
 Unary operators are those operators that
require one operator to operate upon.
 Examples :- +45, 5, -636,etc.,
 Some unary operators
& Addresser operator
* Indirection operator
+ Unary plus
- Unary minus
~ Bitwise complement
++ increment operator
-- decrement operator
! Logical negation
 Binary operators
 Binary operators are those operators that
require two operands to operate upon.
 Types of Binary operators
 Arithmetic operators
+(addition) –(subtraction) *(multiplication)
/(division) %(reminder/modulus)
 Logical operators
&& (Logical AND) || (Logical OR)
 Relational operators
< (Less than)
<=(Less than or equal to)
>(Greater than)
>=(greater than or equal to)
== (equal to)
!= (not equal to)
 A First look at C++ Program
 Why include iostream.h ?
The header file iostream.h is included in
every C++ program to implement
input/output facilities. Input/output
facilities are not defined within C++
language, but rather are implemented in a
component of C++ standard library,
iostream.h which is I/O library.
 Predefined streams in I/O Library
 A stream is simply a sequence of
bytes.

The predefined stream objects for input,

output, error as follows:
1. Cin cin stands for console input.
2. Cout cout stands for console output.
3. Cerr cerr stands for console error.
 Comments in a C++ Program
 Comments are pieces of codes that the
compiler discards or ignores or simply
does not execute.
 Types of comments:
1. Single line comments
2. Multiline or block comments
 Single line comment
 These comments begins with // are single
line comments. The compiler simply
ignores everything following // in that same
line
 Example:-
#include<iostream.h>
Void main() // the program about addition.
 Multi line comments
 The block comments, mark the beginning
of comment with /* and end with */. That
means, everything that falls between/*
and*/ is considered as comment.
Example:-
#include<iostream.h>
Void main() /*the program is about addition*/
 Using I/O operators
 Output operator “ << “
 The output operator (“<<“), also called
stream insertion operator is used to direct
a value top standard output.
 Input operator “ >> ”
 The input operator(“>>“), also known as
stream extraction operator is used to read
a value from standard input.
 Variable
 A variable refers to a storage area whose
contents can vary during processing.
Cascading of I/O operators
 The multiple use of input or output
operators(“>>”or”<<“) in one statement is called
cascading of I/O operators.
 Role of compiler
 A part of the compiler’s job is to analyze the
program code for ‘correctness’. If the meaning
of the program is correct, then a compiler can
not detect errors.
Types of errors:
1. Syntax Errors
2. Semantic Errors
3. Type Errors
4. Run-time Errors
5. Logical Errors
 Syntax Errors are occurred when rules of
the program is misused i.e., when
grammatical rule of C++ is violated.
Ex:- int a, b (semicolon missing)
 Semantic Errors are occur when
statements not meaningful.
Ex:- x*y=z;
 Type Errors are occurred when the data
types are misused.
 Ex:-int a; a=123.56;
 Run-time Errors are occurred at the time
of execution.
 Logical Errors are occurred when the
logic of program is not proper.
Ex:- ctr=1;
While (ctr>10)
{
cout<<n*ctr;
ctr=ctr+1;
}
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