Image Compression: Mohamed N. Ahmed, PH.D

Digital Image Processing
Image Compression
Mohamed N. Ahmed, Ph.D.
Software Research
Image Compression
• Everyday an enormous amount of information is stored,
processed, and transmitted 100
80
60
East
• Financial data 40
West
• Reports 20 North
0
• Inventory 1st Qtr 2nd 3rd Qtr4th Qtr
Qtr
• Cable TV
• Online Ordering and tracking
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Image Compression
• Because much of this information is graphical or pictorial in nature, the
storage and communications requirements are immense.
• Image compression addresses the problem of reducing the amount of data

requirements to represent a digital image.
• Image Compression is becoming an enabling technology: HDTV.
• Also it plays an important role in Video Conferencing, remote sensing, satellite

TV, FAX, document and medical imaging.
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Image Compression
• We want to remove redundancy from the data
• Mathematically
2D array Statistically
Transformation Uncorrelated data
Of pixels
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Day4 : Image Compression

Outline:
1. Fundamentals
Coding Redundancy
Interpixel Redundancy
Psychovisual Redundancy
Fidelity Criteria
2. Error-Free Compression
Variable-length Coding
LZW Coding
Predictive Coding
3. Lossy Compression
Transform Coding
Wavelet Coding
4. Image Compression Standards
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Fundamentals
• The term data compression refers to the process of reducing the
amount of data required to represent a given quantity of information
• Data  Information
• Various amount of data can be used to represent the same information
• Data might contain elements that provide no relevant information :
data redundancy
• Data redundancy is a central issue in image compression. It is not an
abstract concept but mathematically quantifiable entity
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Some Images are adopted from R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
Data Redundancy
• Let n1 and n2 denote the number of information carrying units in two
data sets that represent the same information
• The relative redundancy RD is define as :
1
RD  1 
CR
where CR, commonly called the compression ratio, is
n1
CR 
n2
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Data Redundancy
• If n1 = n2 , CR=1 and RD=0 no redundancy
• If n1 >> n2 , CR   and RD  1 high redundancy
• If n1 << n2 , CR  0 and RD  undesirable
• A compression ration of 10 (10:1) means that the first data set has 10
information carrying units (say, bits) for every 1 unit in the second
(compressed) data set.
• In Image compression , 3 basic redundancy can be identified

» Coding Redundancy
» Interpixel Redundancy
» Psychovisual Redundancy
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Coding Redundancy
• Recall from the histogram calculations
h(rk ) nk
p(rk )  
n n
where p(rk) is the probability of a pixel to have a certain
value rk
If the number of bits used to represent rk is l(rk), then

L 1
Lav   l (rk )( p(rk )
k 0
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Coding Redundancy
• Example:
7
Lav   l (rk )( p(rk )
k 0
 2(019)  2(0.25)  3(0.16)  ...  6(0.02)

 2.7 bits
3
C R   1.11
2
1
RD  1   0.099
1.11
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Coding Redundancy
Variable-Length
Coding
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Inter-pixel Redundancy
Here the two pictures have

Approximately the same
Histogram.
We must exploit Pixel

Dependencies.
Each pixel can be estimated

From its neighbors.
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Run-Length Encoding
Example of Inter-pixel
Redundancy removal
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Psycho-visual Redundancy
The human visual system is more
sensitive to edges
Middle Picture:
Uniform quantization from 256 to
16 gray levels
CR= 2
Right picture:
Improved gray level quantization
(IGS)
CR= 2
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Fidelity Criteria
The error between two functions is given by:

e( x, y )  f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )
So, the total error between the two images is
M 1 N 1 
 [ f ( x, y)  f ( x, y)]
x 0 y 0
The root-mean-square error averaged over the whole image is

1 
erms  [ f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )]2
MN
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Fidelity Criteria
• A closely related objective fidelity criterion is the mean
square signal to noise ratio of the compressed-
decompressed image
M 1 N 1 

x 0 y 0
f ( x, y ) 2
SNRms 

M 1 N 1
 [ f ( x
x 0 y 0
, y )  f ( x , y )] 2
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Fidelity Criteria
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Compression Model
The source encoder is responsible for removing redundancy

(coding, inter-pixel, psycho-visual)
The channel encoder ensures robustness against channel noise.
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Compression Types
Compression
Error-Free Compression
Lossy Compression
(Loss-less)
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Error-Free Compression
• Some applications require no error in compression
(medical, business documents, etc..)
• CR=2 to 10 can be expected.
• Make use of coding redundancy and inter-pixel
redundancy.
• Ex: Huffman codes, LZW, Arithmetic coding, 1D
and 2D run-length encoding, Loss-less Predictive
Coding, and Bit-Plane Coding.
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Huffman Coding
• The most popular technique for removing coding
redundancy is due to Huffman (1952)
• Huffman Coding yields the smallest number of code

symbols per source symbol
• The resulting code is optimal
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Huffman Codes
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Huffman Codes
Lavg  1(0.4)  2(0.3)  3(0.1)  4(0.1)  5(0.06)  5(0.04)

 2.2 bits
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Workshop
Obtain the Huffman codes for the following sequence:
– 5555884277722224477772222222222
222222444
– What is the average code length with and without

compression ?
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Fixed Length: LZW Coding

• Error Free Compression Technique
• Remove Inter-pixel redundancy
• Requires no priori knowledge of probability distribution of
pixels
• Assigns fixed length code words to variable length
sequences
• Patented Algorithm US 4,558,302
• Included in GIF and TIFF and PDF file formats
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LZW Coding
• Coding Technique
– A codebook or a dictionary has to be constructed
– For an 8-bit monochrome image, the first 256 entries are assigned
to the gray levels 0,1,2,..,255.
– As the encoder examines image pixels, gray level sequences that

are not in the dictionary are assigned to a new entry.
– For instance sequence 255-255 can be assigned to entry 256, the

address following the locations reserved for gray levels 0 to 255.
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LZW Coding
• Example
Dictionary Location Entry
Consider the following 4 x 4 8 bit image
0 0
39 39 126 126
1 1
39 39 126 126 . .
39 39 126 126 255 255
256 -
39 39 126 126
511 -
Initial Dictionary
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LZW Coding
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
•Is 39 in the dictionary……..Yes
39 39 126 126 •What about 39-39………….No
39 39 126 126 •Then add 39-39 in entry 256
•And output the last recognized symbol…39
Dictionary Location Entry
0 0
1 1
. .
255 255
256 -
39-39
511 -
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Workshop
• Code the following image using LZW codes
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
* How can we decode the compressed sequence to obtain the original image ?
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LZW Coding
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Bit-Plane Coding
• An effective technique to reduce inter pixel redundancy is
to process each bit plane individually
• The image is decomposed into a series of binary images.
• Each binary image is compressed using one of well known

binary compression techniques.
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Bit-Plane Decomposition
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Bit-Plane Encoding
Constant Area Coding
One Dimensional Run Length coding
1b 2w 1b 3w 4b 1w
Two Dimensional Run Length coding
12 w
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Loss-less Predictive Encoding
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Loss-less Predictive Encoding
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Lossy Compression
Quantizer
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Lossy Compression
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DPCM
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DPCM
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Transform Coding
• A reversible linear transform (such as Fourier
Transform) is used to map the image into a set of
transform coefficients
• These coefficients are then quantized and coded.
• The goal of transform coding is to decorrelate
pixels and pack as much information into small
number of transform coefficients.
• Compression is achieved during quantization not
during the transform step
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Transform Coding
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2D Transforms
• Energy packing
– 2D transforms pack most of the energy
into small number of coefficients located
at the upper left corner of the 2D array
Energy
Packing
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2D Transforms
• Consider an image f(x,y) of size N x N
Forward transform
N 1 N 1
T (u, v)   f ( x, y ) g ( x, y, u, v)
x 0 y 0
u, v  0, 1, 2,..., N  1.
g(x,y,u,v) is the forward transformation kernel or basis functions
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2D Transforms
• Inverse transform
N 1 N 1
f ( x, y )   T (u, v)h( x, y, u, v)
u 0 v 0
x, y  0, 1, 2,..., N  1.
h(x,y,u,v) is the inverse transformation kernel or basis functions
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Discrete Cosine Transform
• One of the most frequently used

transformations for image compression is
the DCT.
g ( x, y , u , v )  h ( x, y , u , v )
 (2 x  1)u   (2 y  1)v 
  (u ) (v) cos   cos  2N 
 2N   
 1 for u=0

 N
 (u )  
 2 for u=1, 2, …, N-1
 N
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Discrete Cosine Transform
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2D Transforms
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Effect of Window Size
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Quantization
Quantizer
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Quantization
• Each transformed coefficient is quantized
ˆ  T (u, v) 
T (u, v)  round  
 Z (u, v) 
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Quantization
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Bit allocation and Zig Zag Ordering
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DCT and Quantization
 T (u, v) 
Tˆ (u, v)  round  
Right Column
 Z (u, v) 
 T (u, v) 
Tˆ (u, v)  round  
 4 Z (u , v ) 
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Wavelet Coding
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Wavelet Transform
1 2
3 4
Put a pixel in each quadrant- No size change
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Wavelet Transform
a b
c d
• Now let
» a = (x1+x2+x3+x4)/4
» b =(x1+x2-x3-x4)/4
» c =(x1+x3-x2-x4)/4
» d =(x1+x4-x2-x3)/4
a  1 1 1 1  x1   x1  1 1 1 1 a 
b  1 1  1  1   x 2  x 2 1 1  1  1  b 
1
        
c  4 1  1 1  1   x3   x3  1  1 1  1  c 
         
 
d 1  1  1 1   x 4   
x 4 1  1  1 1  d 
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Wavelet Transform
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Wavelet Transform
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Wavelet Transform
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Wavelet Coding
• High Frequency coefficients tend to be very

small --- 0
• They can be quantized very effectively

without distorting the results
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Wavelet Transform
Wavelet DCT
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Wavelet Transform
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Image Compression Standards
• Binary Compression Standards

• CCITT G3 -> 1D Run Length Encoding
• CCITT G4 -> 2D Run Length encoding
• JBIG1 -> Lossless adaptive binary compression
• JBIG2 -> Lossy/Lossless adaptive binary
compression
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JBIG/JBIG2
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Image Compression Standards
• Continuous Tone Still Image Compression

Standards
• JPEG
• JPEG 2000
• Mixed Raster Content (MRC)
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MRC
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Video Compression
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Digital Image Processing

Mohamed N. Ahmed, Ph.D.

• Image compression addresses the problem of reducing the amount of data

• Image Compression is becoming an enabling technology: HDTV.

• Also it plays an important role in Video Conferencing, remote sensing, satellite

Day4 : Image Compression

• In Image compression , 3 basic redundancy can be identified

If the number of bits used to represent rk is l(rk), then

 2(019)  2(0.25)  3(0.16)  ...  6(0.02)

Here the two pictures have

We must exploit Pixel

Each pixel can be estimated

The root-mean-square error averaged over the whole image is

The source encoder is responsible for removing redundancy

The channel encoder ensures robustness against channel noise.

• Huffman Coding yields the smallest number of code

• The resulting code is optimal

Lavg  1(0.4)  2(0.3)  3(0.1)  4(0.1)  5(0.06)  5(0.04)

– What is the average code length with and without

Fixed Length: LZW Coding

– As the encoder examines image pixels, gray level sequences that

– For instance sequence 255-255 can be assigned to entry 256, the

• The image is decomposed into a series of binary images.

• Each binary image is compressed using one of well known

One Dimensional Run Length coding

Two Dimensional Run Length coding

Loss-less Predictive Encoding

Loss-less Predictive Encoding

g(x,y,u,v) is the forward transformation kernel or basis functions

h(x,y,u,v) is the inverse transformation kernel or basis functions

Discrete Cosine Transform

• One of the most frequently used

Discrete Cosine Transform

Effect of Window Size

• Each transformed coefficient is quantized

Bit allocation and Zig Zag Ordering

DCT and Quantization

Put a pixel in each quadrant- No size change

• High Frequency coefficients tend to be very

• They can be quantized very effectively

Image Compression Standards

• Binary Compression Standards

Image Compression Standards

• Continuous Tone Still Image Compression

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