MN201

Manufacturing Processes

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

1
METAL CASTING PROCESSES
• Sand Casting
• Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
• Permanent Mold Casting Processes
• Foundry Practice
• Casting Quality
• Metals for Casting
• Product Design Considerations

MN201 2
 Categories of Metal Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to

remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal
and can be used to make many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold

MN201 3
 Overview of Sand Casting
• Most widely used casting process, accounting for a
significant majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals
with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel,
and titanium
• Parts ranging in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions

MN201 4
 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical properties

MN201 5
Use of chaplets to avoid
shifting of cores
 Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing
sand around a pattern, then separating the mold into
two halves and removing the pattern
• The mold must also contain gating and riser system
• If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
• A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced

MN201 7
 Desirable Mold Properties and
Characteristics
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with
molten metal
• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting
• Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to
make other molds?

MN201 8
 Other Expendable Mold
Casting Processes
• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold Casting

MN201 9
 Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of
sand held together by thermosetting resin binder
• Developed in Germany during early 1940s

MN201 10
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding: (1) a match-plate or
cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and placed over
a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin

MN201 11
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding: (2) box is inverted so that
sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the
mixture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell

MN201 12
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding: (3) box is repositioned
so that loose uncured particles drop away

MN201 13
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding:
(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern

MN201 14
Figure 11.5 - Steps in shell-molding:
(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand
or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished
(7) the finished casting with sprue removed

MN201 15
 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Shell Molding
• Advantages:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten metal
and better surface finish on casting
– Good dimensional accuracy
– Machining often not required
– Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities

MN201 16
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam
pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is poured
into mold
• Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating
system, and internal cores (if needed)
• Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag
sections

MN201 17
 Vacuum Moulding

A thin sheet of preheated plastic is drawn over a match-

plate or cope-and-drag pattern by vacuum—the pattern has
small vent holes to facilitate vacuum forming
 Vacuum Moulding -Step 2

A specially designed flask is placed over the pattern plate and

filled with sand, and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the
sand;
 Vacuum moulding

Another thin plastic sheet is placed over the flask, and a

vacuum is drawn that causes the sand grains to be held
together, forming a rigid mold;
 Vacuum moulding

The vacuum on the mold pattern is released to permit

the pattern to be stripped from the mold;
 Vacuum Moulding

Mold is assembled with its matching half to form the cope

and drag, and with vacuum maintained on both halves,
pouring is accomplished. The plastic sheet quickly burns
away on contacting the molten metal. After solidification,
nearly all of the sand can be recovered for reuse
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Advantages:
– Pattern need not be removed from the mold
– Simplifies and expedites mold-making, since two mold
halves (cope and drag) are not required as in a conventional
green-sand mold
• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting
– Economic justification of the process is highly dependent on
cost of producing patterns

MN201 23
 Applications of
Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Mass production of castings for automobile engines
• Automated and integrated manufacturing systems
are used to
– Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
– Feed them to the downstream casting operation

MN201 24
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to

make mold, after which wax is melted away prior to pouring
molten metal
• "Investment" comes from one of the less familiar definitions
of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to coating
of refractory material around wax pattern
• It is a precision casting process - capable of castings of
high accuracy and intricate detail

MN201 25
Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment casting:
(1) wax patterns are produced
(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree

MN201 26
Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment casting:
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient
refractory material to make it rigid

MN201 27
Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment casting:
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the
wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity

MN201 28
 Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment
casting:
(6) the mold is preheated to a
high temperature, which
ensures that all contaminants
are eliminated from the mold;
it also permits the liquid metal
to flow more easily into the
detailed cavity; the molten
metal is poured; it solidifies

MN201 29
Figure 11.8 - Steps in investment casting:
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting -
parts are separated from the sprue

MN201 30
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Investment Casting
• Advantages:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net
shape process
• Disadvantages
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process

MN201 31
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new
mold is required for every casting
• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times
• The processes include:
– Basic permanent mold casting
– Die casting
– Centrifugal casting

MN201 32
 The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
• Molds used for casting lower melting point alloys are
commonly made of steel or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures

MN201 33
Figure 11.10 - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(1) mold is preheated and coated

MN201 34
Figure 11.10 - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed

MN201 35
Figure 11.10 - Steps in permanent mold casting:
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold

MN201 36
Mould opened & Final Product
 Advantages and Limitations of
Permanent Mold Casting
• Advantages:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in a
finer grain structure, so stronger castings are produced
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simple part geometries compared to sand casting because of the
need to open the mold
– High cost of mold

MN201 38
 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high

volume production and can be automated accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron

MN201 39
 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is
injected into mold cavity under high pressure
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened
and part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name
die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what
distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes

MN201 40
 Die Casting Machines
• Designed to hold and accurately close two mold
halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

MN201 41
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal
under high pressure into the die
• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon
• Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and other mechanical
components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

MN201 42
Figure 11.13 - Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into
the chamber

MN201 43
Figure 11.13 - Cycle in hot-chamber casting:
(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification

MN201 44
Final Product
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external
melting container, and a piston injects metal under high
pressure into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber
machines because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
• Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on low
melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)

MN201 46
Figure 11.14 - Cycle in cold-chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal
is poured into the chamber

MN201 47
Figure 11.14 - Cycle in cold-chamber casting:
(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification

MN201 48
 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used
to die cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking

MN201 49
 Advantages and Limitations of
Die Casting

• Advantages:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to
casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity

MN201 50
 Centrifugal Casting
A group of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity

MN201 51
 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a
tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc., but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces

MN201 52
Figure 11.15 - Setup for true centrifugal casting

MN201 53
 Casting Quality
• There are numerous opportunities for things to go
wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality
defects in the product
• The defects can be classified as follows:
– Defects common to all casting processes
– Defects related to sand casting process

MN201 54
 Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling
mold cavity

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

MN201 55
 Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due
to premature freezing

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

MN201 56
 Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form
and become entrapped in casting

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

MN201 57
 Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification
shrinkage that restricts amount of molten metal available in last
region to freeze

Figure 11.22 - Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

MN201 58
 Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

MN201 59
 Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

MN201 60
 Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or sand core, causing casting surface
to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

MN201 61
 Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise
relative displacement of cope and drag

Figure 11.23 - Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

MN201 62
 problem

The flow rate of liquid metal into the

downsprue of a mold = 1 liter/sec. The
cross-sectional area at the top of the
sprue = 800 mm2 and its length = 175
mm. What area should be used at the
base of the sprue to avoid aspiration of
the molten metal?
The total solidification times of three casting
shapes are to be compared: (1) a sphere, (2)
a cylinder, in which the length-to-diameter
ratio = 1.0, and (3) a cube. For all three
geometries, the volume = 1000 cm3. The
same casting alloy is used in the three cases.
(a) Determine the relative solidification times
for each geometry. (b) Based on the results
of part (a), which geometric element would
make the best riser? (c) If the mold constant
= 3.5 min/cm2 in Chvorinov's Rule, compute
the total solidification time for each casting