UNIT-II

ALTERNATOR PERFORMANCE AND TESTING

2.1 Load characteristics of an alternators:
As the load of an alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary. This variation in
terminal voltage is due to the following reasons
 Voltage drop due to armature resistance Ra
 Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance XL
 Voltage drop due to armature reaction

Fig: 2.1
A load characteristic of an alternator is the relation between the terminal voltage and the load
current keeping the field excitation and speed as constant. The variation of terminal voltage also depends
on the power factor of the load. With unity power factor load, there is a moderate voltage drop. But if
there load has a lagging power factor this voltage drop is considerably increased. On the other hand, a
load having a leading power factor has the reverse effect. If the load current leads the voltage by
sufficient angle, the voltage drop may actually be converted into a voltage rise. The load characteristics
curves for different power factors are shown in fig 2.1
2.2 Reason for change in terminal voltage or causes of voltage drop in
alternators
When the armature current increases, the terminal voltage drops due to the following reasons.
• Voltage drop due to armature effective resistance (Reff) of the armature winding.
• Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance (XL).
• Voltage drop due to armature reaction.
2.3 Armature reaction of alternators on load at various power factors
The armature winding of an alternator carries current only when the alternator is loaded. At no-load,
there will be no current flowing through the armature winding. In alternators under loaded condition,
there are two fluxes present in the air-gap. They are
• Flux due to the field ampere turns
• Flux due to the current flowing through the armature winding
That is, when the armature carries the load current, an armature flux (фa) is produced in the armature
winding and is also present in the airgap. There is already another flux due to field current that is also

52
present in the air-gap. Now there are two fluxes present in the air gap. But actually the machine needs
only the fluxes due to field ampere turns only.
The effect of armature flux due to armature current over the main field flux is called armature
reaction. This effect can be in the following forms.
They are
• The armature flux will produce a distortion over the field flux
• The armature flux will oppose the main field flux (or) will aid the main flux.
The above said armature reaction effects depends upon the p.f of the load.

Fig 2.2 Unity p.f

Consider the load of the alternator as resistive and for which the p.f is unity. That is the load
current is in phase with the terminal voltage V. at unity p.f, armature flux cross magnaetising. i..e at unity
p.f of the load, the main flux and the armature flux are as shown in Fig 2.2

Fig 2.3 Zero p.f lagging

The result is that the flux at the leading pole tips of the pole is reduced. While it is increased at
the trailing pole tips. Hence these two effects are more or less off set each other. Hence the filed strength
is constant. Under unity p.f load, the armature reaction is distortional.
Consider the load of the alternator as pure inductive, and for which the p.f is zero lagging. That is
the load current lags the terminal voltage by an angle 900 . At zero p.f lagging load, the armature flux is in
direct opposition to the main flux as shown in Fig 2.3. So the main flux is decreased. For zero p.f lagging,
the armature reaction is demagnetizing. It weakens the main flux. So less emf is generated. To keep the
generated emf constant, field excitation has to be increased, in order to compensate the weaken flux.

Fig 2.4 Zero p.f leading

Consider the load of the alternator is pure capacitive, and for which the p.f is zero leading. That is
the load current leads the terminal voltage V by an angle 900. At zero p.f leading, the armature flux is in
phase with the main flux as shown in Fig 2.4. The armature flux added with the main flux and hence the
flux is increased. Here the armature reaction effect is magnetizing. Due to increasing of flux, the
generated emf is increased. Hence to keep the generated emf constant, the field excitation has to be
reduced in order to compensate the increasing flux.
53
 Fig 2.5 Intermediate power factor
If the p.f the load is intermediate (say 0.7 p.f lagging) the armature reaction effect is partly
distortion and partly demagnetising. The effect is shown in Fig 2.5
2.4 Effective Resistance, Reff:
The effective resistance of the armature is the resistance offered by the armature winding for a
alternating current. It is greater than the D. C resistance due to skin effect. Reff is usually assumed to be
1.6RDC. the voltage drop due to this resistance (IReff) is very low compared to other voltage drops.
2.4.1 Armature Resistance:
The armature resistance/phase Ra causes a voltage drop/phase of IRa which is in -phase with the
armature current I. However, this voltage drop is practically negligible.
2.5 Armature Leakage Reactance:
When current flows through the armature conductors, fluxes are set up which do not cross the air-
gap, but take different paths. Such fluxes are known as leakage fluxes. The leakage flux is
practically independent of saturation, but is dependent on I and its phase angle with terminal voltage V.
This leakage flux sets up an emf. of self-inductance which is known as reactance emf. and which is ahead
of I by 90°.
Hence, armature winding is assumed to possess leakage reactance XL (also known as Potier
reactance XP) such that voltage drops due to this equals IXL. A part of the generated emf is used up in
overcoming this reactance emf.
2.6 Synchronous Reactance Xs:
The synchronous reactance of an alternator is a fictitious reactance. It is equivalent to a reactance
value, which is equal to the combined effects of the armature leakage reactance, XL and a fictitious
inductive reactance to represents the armature reaction Xa, synchronous reactance XS is equal to (XL + Xa)
2.7 Synchronous Impedance, ZS :
The effective value of armature resistance Reff and synchronous reactance combined together is
called synchronous impedance, ZS. it is the vector sum of armature resistance and the synchronous
reactance
ZS = ohms.
2.8 Voltage Regulation:
It is clear that with change in load, there is a change in terminal voltage of an alternator. The
magnitude of this change depends not only on the load but also on the load power factor. The voltage
regulation of an alternator is defined as “the rise in voltage when full-load is removed (field excitation
and speed remaining the same) divided by the rated terminal voltage.”

54
2.8.1 Determination of Voltage Regulation:
In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading. The procedure is as
follows:
The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated
value V. The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter indicate the rated values at desired p.f. Then
the entire load is thrown off while the speed and field excitation are kept constant. The open-circuit or no-
load voltage E0 is read. Hence, regulation can be found from

In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by direct loading becomes
expensive. Hence, other indirect methods are used as discussed below. It will be found that all these
methods differ mainly in the way the no-load voltage E0 is found in each case.
• Synchronous Impedance or E.M.F. Method
• The Ampere-turn or M.M.F. Method
• Zero Power Factor or Potier Method
All these methods require:
1. Armature (or stator) resistance Ra
2. Open-circuit/No-load characteristic.
3. Short-circuit characteristic (but zero power factor lagging characteristic for Potier method).

2.8.1 To find the Value of Ra:

Armature resistance Ra per phase can be measured directly by voltmeter and ammeter method or
by using Wheatstone bridge. However, under working conditions, the effective value of Ra is increased
due to ‘skin effect’. The value of Ra so obtained is increased by 60% or so to allow for this effect.
Generally, a value 1.6 times the d.c. value is taken.
2.8.2 Open circuit characteristics
The open –circuit characteristics or magnetization curve is really the B-H curve of the complete
magnetic circuit of the alternator. But it is usual to plot the curve with exciting current in X-axis and the
terminal voltage in Y-axis. The test is carried out on open circuit maintaining the speed of the machine at
normal.

55
 Fig 2.6
The connection in diagram for the open –circuit characteristics (O.C.C) is shown in fig.2.6 the
armature terminals are left open circuited and a voltmeter is connected to show the induced emf . The
ammeter connected shows the field excitation of the alternator. For various field current the induced emfs
are noted and plotted the open-circuit characteristics as shown fig .2.7

Fig 2.7
2.8.3 Short –circuit characteristics
The short –circuit characteristics, as its name implies, refers to the behavior of the alternator
when its armature is short circuited. The connection diagram for conducting the short –circuit test is
shown in fig 2.8. The armature terminals are short circuited through an ammeter to show the short circuit
current. Another ammeter is connected in the field circuit of the alternator to show the field excitation.

56
 Fig: 2.8
The alternator is allowed to run at rated speed. The filed current is gradually increased till the
armature current reaches its rated value. The small induced emf in the armature is equal to the voltage
drop in the winding itself. This induced emf is required to circulate the short –circuit current through the
armature windings.
The armature short- circuit current and the filed current are found to be proportional to each other
over a wide range as shown in fig 2.9 .So the short –circuit characteristics (S.C.C) is a straight line.

Fig: 2.9

57
2.9 Synchronous Impedance Method:
Following procedural steps are involved in this method:
1. O.C.C is plotted from the given data as shown in Fig. 2.10 (a).
2. Similarly, S.C.C. is drawn from the data given by the short-circuit test. It is a straight line passing
through the origin. Both these curves are drawn on a common field-current base.

Consider a field current If. The O.C. voltage corresponding to this field current is E1. When
winding is short-circuited, the terminal voltage is zero. Hence, it may be assumed that the whole of this
voltage E1 is being used to circulate the armature short-circuit current I1 against the synchronous
impedance ZS.

3. Since Ra can be found as discussed earlier

4. Knowing Ra and XS, vector diagram as shown in Fig. 2.10 (b) can be drawn for any load and any power
factor.

Fig.2.10 (a) OCC & SCC

58
 Fig.2.10 (b) Vector Diagram

Here

or

This method is not accurate because the value of ZS so found is always more than its value under
normal voltage conditions and saturation. Hence, the value of regulation so obtained is always more than
that found from an actual test. That is why it is called pessimistic method. The value of ZS is not constant
but varies with saturation.

At low saturation, its value is larger because then the effect of a given armature ampere-turns is
much more than at high saturation. Now, under short-circuit conditions, saturation is very low, because
armature m.m.f. is directly demagnetizing. Different values of ZS corresponding to different values of
field current are also plotted in Fig. 2.10 (a).

The value of ZS usually taken is that obtained from full-load current in the short-circuit test. Here,
armature reactance Xa has not been treated separately but along with leakage reactance XL..
The operation of connecting an alternator in parallel with another alternator or with common bus-
bars is known as synchronizing.
Generally, alternators are used in a power system where they are in parallel with many other
alternators. It means that the alternator is connected to a live system of constant voltage and constant

59
frequency. Often the electrical system, to which the alternator is connected, has already so many
alternators and loads connected to it that no matter what power is delivered by the incoming alternator,
the voltage and frequency of the system remain the same. In that case, the alternator is said to be
connected to infinite bus-bars.
Example 2.1 The effective resistance of a 2200 V, 50Hz, 440KVA, single phase alternator is
0.5Ω. On short circuit, a field current of 40 A gives the full load current of 200 A .The emf on
open circuit with the same field current excitation is 1160V. Calculate the synchronous
impedance and reactance.
Solution:

Synchronous impedance,

Synchronous impedance,

Synchronous reactance,

Example 2.2 The effective armature resistance and synchronous reactance of a 60 KVA, star
connected. 440V, 3-phase, 50 Hz alternator are 0.2Ω and 3Ω per phase respectively.
Determine the percentage voltage regulation on full load at unity power factor.
Solution:

Terminal voltage per phase

Full load current

Induced emf per phase, Eo (V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + )2

S

IX

(254 × 1 + 78 .72 × 0.2 )2 + (254 × 0 + 78.72 ×

3 )2

358.5 Volts

60
Percentage of voltage regulation Eo −V
× 100
V

358 .5 − 254
× 100 = 41 %
254

Example 2.3 A 550V, 55 KVA, single phase alternator has an effective resistance of 0.2Ω. A
field current of 10A produces an armature current of 200A on short circuit and an emf of
450V on open circuit. Calculate (1) the synchronous impedance and reactance (2) the full load
regulation with 0.8 power factor lagging.
Solution:

Full load current

Synchronous impedance,

Synchronous reactance,

Induced emf per phase, Eo (V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + )2

S

IX

(550 × 0.8 + 100 × 0.2 )2 + (550 × 0.6 + 100 × 2.24

)2

720 volts

Percentage of voltage Eo −V
× 100
regulation V

720 − 550
× 100 = 30 .92 %
550

61
Example 2.4 Determine the voltage regulation of a 2000V, single phase alternator giving a
current of 100 A at 0.71 power factor lagging from the following test results.
Test Results: Full load current of 100 A is produced on short circuit by a field current
of 2.5 A; an emf of 500V is produced on open circuit by the same excitation. Armature
resistance is 0.8Ω.

Solution:

Synchronous impedance,

Synchronous reactance,

Induced emf per phase, Eo (V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + )2

S

IX

(2000 × 0.71 + 100 × 0.8)2 + (2000 × 0.71 + 100 × 4.94

)2
2431.7 Volts

Percentage of voltage Eo −V
× 100
regulation V

2431 .7 − 2000
× 100 = 21 .58 %
2000

Example 2.5 A 60 KVA, 220V, 50Hz, 1- φ alternator has effective armature resistance of
0.016Ω and an armature leakage reactance of 0.07Ω . Compute the voltage induced in
armature when the alternator is delivering rated current at a load power factor of (a) unity (b)
0.7 lagging (c) 0.7 leading.
Solution:

Full load current

At unity power factor Induced (V + IR a )2 + (IX L )2

emf per phase, Eo

62
 Eo (220 + 272 .2 × 0.016 )2 + (272 .2 × 0.07
)2
225 V

At 0.7 lagging p.f Induced emf

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + L )2
per phase, Eo
IX

(220 × 0.7 + 272 .2 × 0.016 )2 + (220 × 0.7 + 272 .2 × 0.07

)2
235 Volts

At 0.7 leading p.f Induced emf

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ − L )2
per phase, Eo
IX

(220 × 0.7 + 272 .2 × 0.016 )2 + (220 × 0.7 − 272 .2 × 0.07

)2
208 lts

Example 2.6 Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator in which a
given field current produces an armature current of 200 A on short circuit and a generated
emf of 50 V on open circuit. The armature resistance is 0.1Ω. To what induced voltage must
the alternator be excited if it is to deliver a load of 100 A at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging. With terminal
voltage of 200V

Solution:
Synchronous impedance,

Synchronous reactance,

Induced emf per phase, Eo (V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + )2

S

IX

63
 (200 × 0.8 + 100 × 0.1)2 + (200 × 0.6 + 100 × 0.23
)2
222 lts

Example 2.7 Determine the voltage regulation of a 2000V, single phase alternator giving a
current of 100 A at (i) unity p.f (ii) 0.8 leading p.f (iii) 0.71 lagging p.f from the following test
results.
Test Results: Full load current of 100 A is produced on short circuit by a field current of 2.5
A; an emf of 500V is produced on open circuit by the same excitation. Armature resistance is
0.8Ω.

Solution:

Synchronous impedance,

Synchronous reactance,

At unity power factor Induced

(V + IR a )2 + (IXs )
2

emf per phase, Eo

(2000 + 100 × 0.8)2 + (100 × 4.94

)2
2140 V

At 0.71 lagging p.f Induced emf

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + S )2
per phase, Eo
IX

(2000 × 0.71 + 100 × 0.8)2 + (2000 × 0.71 + 100 × 4.94

)2
2432 Volts

At 0.8 leading p.f Induced emf

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ − S )2
per phase, Eo
IX

64
 (2000 × 0.8 + 100 × 0.8)2 + (2000 × 0.6 − 100 × 4.94 )2
1822 Volts

At Unity p.f Eo − V
× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

2140 − 2000
× 100 = 7%
2000

At 0.8 leading p.f Eo − V

× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

1820 − 2000
× 100 = −9 %
2000

At 0.71 lagging p.f Eo − V

× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

2432 − 2000
× 100 = 21 .6%
2000

Example 2.8 A 100 KVA, 3000V, 50Hz, 3-phase star connected alternator has effective
armature resistance of 0.2Ω. The field current of 40 A produces short circuit current of 200 A
and an open circuit emf of 1040 V (line value). Calculate the full load voltage regulation at 0.8
p.f. lagging and 0.8 p.f leading.
Solution:

Synchronous impedance,

Synchronous reactance,

65
Full load current

Voltage per phase

(i) P.f 0.8 lagging

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + S )2
IX
At 0.8 lagging p.f Induced emf
per phase , Eo

(1732 × 0.8 + 19.2 × 0.2 )2 + (1732 × 0.6 + 19.2 × 2.99

)2
1770 Volts

At 0.8 lagging p.f Eo −V

× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

1770 − 1730
× 100 = 2.2%
1730

(ii) At 0.8 leading p.f

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ − S )2
IX
At 0.8 leading p.f Induced emf
per phase, Eo

(1730 × 0.8 + 19 .2 × 0.2 )2 + (1730 × 0.6 − 19.2 × 2.99

)2
1701.31 Volts
At 0.8 leading p.f Eo −V
× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

1701 − 1730
× 100 = −1.8%
1730

66
Example 2.9 A 3 –phase star connected alternator is rated at 1600 KVA, 13500 V. the
armature resistance and synchronous reactance are 1.5Ω and 30Ω respectively per phase.
Calculate the percentage regulation for a load of 1280 KW at 0.8 leading power factor.
Solution:

Load current

Voltage per phase

At 0.8 leading p.f Induced emf

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ − S )2
per phase, Eo
IX

(7794 × 0.8 + 68.4 × 1.5)2 + (7794 × 0.6 − 68.4 × 30

)2
6860 Volts

At 0.8 leading p.f Eo −V

× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

6860 − 7795
× 100 = −11 .98%
7795

Example 2.10 A 3-phase, 10 KVA, 400 V, 50Hz, Y-connected alternator supplies the rated load
at 0.8 p.f lag. If armature resistance is 0.5Ω and synchronous reactance is 10 Ω. Find the
voltage regulation.
Solution:

Full load current

Voltage per phase

At 0.8 lagging p.f Induced emf

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + S )2
per phase, Eo
IX

67
 (231 × 0.8 + 14.4 × 0.5)2 + (231 × 0.6 + 14.4 × 10
)2
342 Volts

At 0.8 lagging p.f Eo −V

× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

342 − 231
× 100 = 48 %
231

Example 2.11 The following test results are obtained from a 3-phase ,600 KVA, 6600V, star
connected ,2 pole, 50 Hz turbo alternator:
With a field current of 125 A, the open circuit voltage is 8000 V at the rated speed. With the
same field current and rated speed, the short- circuit current is 800 A. at the rated full load,
the resistance drop is 3 percent. Find the regulation of the alternator on full load and at a
power factor of 0.8 lagging.

Solution:
Synchronous
impedance,

Voltage per phase

Resistive drop 3% of 3810.5 V

114.3 V

Load current

IRa 114.3

Ra 114.3/52.5 = 2.177Ω

68
 Synchronous reactance,

At 0.8 lagging p.f

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + S )2
Induced emf per phase,
IX
Eo

(3810 × 0.8 + 525 × 0.218 )2 + (3810 × 0.6 + 525 × 5.74

)2
4073.23 Volts

At 0.8 lagging p.f Eo −V

× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

4073 − 3810
× 100 = 6.89 %
3810

Example 2.12 A 3-phase 50 Hz star connected 2000 KVA, 2300 V alternator gives a short
circuit current of 600 A for a certain field excitation. With the same excitation, the open
circuit voltage was 900 V. the resistance between a pair of terminals was 0.12Ω. Find full load
regulation at (i) UPF (ii) 0.8 p.f lagging.
Solution:
Synchronous impedance,

Full load current

Resistance between the terminals is 0.12Ω . it is the resistance of two phase connected in series

Resistance /phase 0.12 / 2 = 0.06Ω

69
Effective resistance / phase 1.5

1.5

Synchronous reactance,

Voltage per phase

At unity power factor

(V + IR a )2 + (IXs )2
Induced emf per phase,
Eo

(1328 + 502 × 0.06 )2 + (502 × 0.86

)2
1425 V

Percentage of voltage Eo −V
× 100
regulation V

1425 − 1328
× 100 = 7.3 %
1328

At 0.8 lagging p.f Induced

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + S )2
emf per phase, Eo
IX

(1328 × 0.8 + 502 × 0.06 )2 + (1328 × 0.6 + 502 × 0.86

)2
1644 Volts
At 0.8 lagging p.f Eo −V
× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

1643 − 1328
× 100 = 23 .7%
1328

70
Example 2.13 A 500 KVA, three phase, star connected alternator has a rated line to line
terminal voltage of 3300V. The resistance and synchronous reactance per phase are 0.3Ω and
4.0 Ω respectively. Calculate the voltage regulation at full load, 0.8 power factor lagging.
Solution:
Full load current

Voltage per phase

At 0.8 lagging p.f Induced

(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + S )2
emf per phase, Eo
IX

(1905 × 0.8 + 87.5 × 0.3)2 + (1905 × 0.6 + 87.5 ×

4 )2

2152 Volts/phase
At 0.8 lagging p.f Eo −V
× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

2152 − 1905
× 100 = 12 .96 %
1905

Example 2.14 A 1200 KVA, 3300V, 50 Hz, three phase, star connected alternator has
armature resistance of 0.25Ω per phase. A field current of 40 A produces a short –circuit
current of 200 A and an open –circuit emf of 1100 V line to-line. Calculate the regulation on
(a) full load 0.8 power factor lagging; (b) full load 0.8 leading power factor
Solution:
Full load current

Voltage per phase

Synchronous impedance,

Synchronous reactance,

71
 (a) At 0.8 lagging p.f
Induced emf per
(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ + S )2
IX
phase, Eo
(1905 × 0.8 + 210 × 0.25 )2 + (1905 × 0.6 + 210 × 3.165
)2
2398 Volts

At 0.8 lagging p.f Eo −V

× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

2398 − 1905
× 100 = 25 .9%
1905

(b) At 0.8 leading p.f

Induced emf per
(V cos φ + IRa )2 + (V sin φ − S )2
IX
phase, Eo
(1905 × 0.8 + 210 × 0.25 )2 + (1905 × 0.6 − 210 × 3.165
)2
1647 Volts

At 0.8 leading p.f Eo −V

× 100
V
Percentage of voltage
regulation

1647 − 1905
× 100 = −13 .54 %
1905

2.10 M.M.F. or Ampere-turn Method:

For determining the regulation of an alternator by Magneto Motive force (MMF) method, the
open circuit test and short circuit test are to be conducted on the alternator.
In this method, the armature leakage reactance and the effect of armature reaction are treated as
mmf
The following steps are followed in this method for calculating the regulation
1. MMF in terms of field currents are calculated.
2. Field current (MMF) for the voltage of the vector sum of terminal voltage (V) and IRa drop is
found out from the O.C.C . Let this field current be If1.

72
 3. Rated armature current is known. Then from the S.C.C, the value of field current is found out
in order to produce the rated full load armature current on short circuit. Let this filed current
If2.
4. This is the field current or MMF necessary to send the rated current against the effect of
armature leakage reactance and the armature reaction.
5. The vector sum of the two field currents If1 and If2 are found out and let this value be Ifr.
6. For this current Ifr ,the corresponding e.m.f . on the open circuit characteristics is found out.
This e.m.f is the no load e.m.f of the alternator E.
7. Knowing the no load EMF E, the regulation can be calculated as

Fig 2.11 Shows the OC and SC characteristics and also the vector diagram for lagging p.f load.
For lagging p.f load the If2 is drawn from If1 by an angle (90+θ) as shown in fig 2.12 (a). The vector sum
of If1 and If2 is Ifr . For this current Ifr , the corresponding e.m.f on the open circuit characteristics is found
out. This is no load emf (E)
Hence

Can be calculated for lagging p.f.

Fig 2.12
For leading p.f load , If2 is drawn from If1 by an angle (90-θ) as shown in Fig 2.12.(b) . the vector sum of
If1 and If2 is Ifr . for this current Ifr, the corresponding e.m.f on open circuit characteristics is found out.
This e.m.f is no load e.m.f (E) . Then the

can be calculated for leading p.f

Fig 2.13

73
For unity p.f load ,If2 is drawn 90o from If1 as shown in fig 2.13 the vector sum of If1 and If2 is Ifr. For this
current Ifr, the corresponding e.m.f on O.C.C is found out. This e.m.f is no load e.m.f (E) . Then the

Can be calculated for unity p.f

2.11 Zero Power Factor or potier Method

This method gives more accurate results since it is based on the separation of armature leakage
reactance drop and the armature reaction effects. The following experimental data is required in this
method:
(i) No –load or open circuit curve
(ii) Full –load zero power factor curve (S.C.C)
The circuit diagram to conducting this test is shown in fig 2.14
From (ii) the reduction in voltage due to armature reaction is found out and volltage drop due to
armature leakage reactance (also called potier reactance) XL is found from both (i) and (ii). By combining
the two, Eo can be calculated.
The above two curves are similar and displaced horizontally by the m.m.f due to armature reaction in
terms of the field current.

Zero power factor test

To conduct zero power factor test, the switch ‘S’ is kept closed. Due to this, a purely inductive
load is connected to the alternator through an ammeter. A purely inductive load has zero power factor
lagging (i.e cos90o). The machine speed is maintained constant at synchronous speed. Then by adjusting
the field current such that the voltmeter reads rated voltage and by varying the inductance of the load,
such that ammeter reads rated full load current.

Fig 2.14
In this test there is no need to obtain number of points to obtain the curve. Only two points are enough to
construct the zero power factor curve. This is the graph of terminal voltage against excitation when
delivering full load zero power factor current.

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 Fig 2.15
Zero power factor, full-load voltage excitation characteristics can be drawn by knowing two points A
and P. point A is obtained from a short circuit test with full –load armature current. Hence OA represents
field current (Excitation) required to overcome demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and to balance
leakage reactance drop at full –load. Point P is obtained when full –load current flows through the
armature and wattmeter reading is zero. Zero power factor curve may be drawn as follows:
(i) From P draw line PQ equal and parallel to OA.
(ii) Through point Q draw a line parallel to initial straight part of O.C.C (parallel to OB),cutting the
O.C.C at R.
(iii) Join RQ and draw a perpendicular Line RS on PQ.
(iv) Impose the triangle PRS at various –points of O.C.C to obtain corresponding points on the zero
power factor curve.
In triangle PRS
Length RS represents leakage reactance drop (IXL)
Length PS represents armature reaction excitation. This shown in fig 2.15
Potier Regulation Diagram
Following is the procedure to draw potier regulation diagram:
(i) Draw OA horizontally to represent terminal voltage V on full load and OB to represent full load
current (I) at a given power factor
(ii) Draw AC (=IRa) ,voltage drop due to resistance (Ra) (if resistance is given)parallel to OB
(iii) Draw CD perpendicular to AC and equal to reactance drop IXL.
Now OD represents generated e.m.f E.
(iv) From O.C.C, find the field current I1 corresponding to this generated e.m.f E and draw OF (equal
to I1) perpendicular to OD. Draw FG parallel to load current OB (i.e . I) to represent
excitation (field current) equivalent to full load armature reaction.
OG gives total field current required.
(v) If the load is thrown off, then terminal voltage will be equal to generated e.m.f corresponding to
field excitation OG. Hence e.m.f Eo may be obtained from O.C.C corresponding to field

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 excitation OG. Vector OJ will lag behind vector OG by 900 . DJ represents voltage drop due
to armature reaction.
Now regulation may be obtained from the following relation:

2.12 Necessity for Parallel Operation of Alternators:

If the load on a single alternator at a power station becomes more than the rating of alternator, it
becomes necessary to add another alternator in parallel to meet out the increasing load. For this reason,
total output of a power station is supplied with a number of alternator connected in parallel to a common
system of bus bars.

2.13 Condition for parallel operation:

• The terminal voltage of the incoming alternator must be the same as bus-bar voltage.
• The speed of the incoming machine must be such that its frequency (= PN/120) equals bus-
bar frequency.
• The phase sequence of the alternator voltage must be identical with the phase sequence of the
bus-bar voltage.
2.13.1 Advantages of Parallel operation:
• Increase the output capacity of a system beyond that of a single unit
• Serve as additional reserve power for expected demands
• Permit shutting down one machine and cutting in a standby machine without interrupting
power distribution.

Methods of Synchronizing:
There are three methods of synchronizing for parallel operation
• Dark lamp Method
• Bright Lamp Method
• Synchroscope Method
2.14 synchronizing by Dark Lamp Method:
The connection for synchronizing a three phase alternator is shown in Fig 2.17 The alternator 1 is
already connected with the bus-bar and is supplying power factor to the external circuit. The
alternator 2 is the incoming alternator.

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 Fig 2.17
The incoming alternator started and its speed is adjusted to its rated value. Its excitation is also
adjusted to generate its rated voltage. Voltmeter V2 will indicate its voltage and voltmeter V1 will
indicate the bus-bar voltage. When the voltage V1 and V2 are equal, the condition 1 is satisfied.
The frequency of the incoming machine is adjusted to the bus-bar frequency by controlling the
speed of the alternator 2. This fulfils the condition 2. The phase sequence also checked as mentioned
above.
The synchronizing switch is closed at the middle of the lamps dark period. Now the incoming
machine is connected to the bus-bar. At this stage, the generated emf of the incoming machine is just
equal to the bus-bar voltage. It neither supply power nor receive power from the bus-bar, and the
alternator 2 is said to be “floating on the bus-bar”.
In dark lamp method, it is not possible to judge whether the incoming alternator is fast or slow.
Also, the lamp can be dark even though a small value of voltage may present across its terminals.
These are the disadvantages of dark lamp method. These disadvantage may not cause much in case of
slow speed alternators or small capacity alternators. But it may cause harm and disturbance in case of
high speed and large capacity alternators. The bright lamp method eliminates these difficulties.

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2.15 Bright Lamp Method:

Fig 2. 18
In bright lamp method of synchronizing all three lamp connections have been reversed as shown
in fig 2.18. AS in dark lamp method, the incoming machine is started, voltage and frequency are
adjusted to bus-bar values. Phase sequence is checked by phase sequence indicator. Now the lamps
are flickering proportional to the difference in frequencies of bus- bar and the incoming machine. The
brightness of all the lamps are maximum when the voltages are in phase with the bus-bar. The
synchronizing switch is closed at the middle period of the brightest period and thus the alternator is
synchronized.

2.16 Two dark one bright Lamp method:

Fig 2.19 shows another method called the “rotating lamp method”, in which the lamp will flicker
two bright, one dark, and two dark, one bright successively. The synchronizing switch is closed when
the two lamps are bright and one lamp dark

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Fig 2.19

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2.17 Synchroscope Method:

Fig 2.20
Synchronizing an alternator by using lamps is not very exact method, since it requires a correct
judgment for closing the synchronizing switch. Therefore the lamps are replaced by a synchroscope.
The synchroscope indicates not only the exact moment but also shows whether the incoming machine
is fast or slow.
The synchroscope operates on the same principle as the power factor meter. It consist of a rotor
and a stator. The rotor is connected to the incoming alternator, and the stator is connected to the bus-
bar. A pointer is attached to the rotor. This pointer will indicate the correct time for closing the
synchronizing switch. The correct time for synchronizing is the pointer points at 120 clock position.
Fig 2.20 shows the connection diagram for synchronizing the alternator by using synchroscope.
In this case also, the phase sequence is checked by a phase sequence indicator or test lamp. After
checking up the voltage and phase sequence as in previous cases, the incoming alternator is adjusted
so that the pointer of the synchroscope rotates very slowly. If the frequencies are different values, the
pointer will rotate. If the pointer rotates in the anticlockwise direction then the frequency of the
incoming alternator is low. The clockwise direction of rotation of the pointer shows the frequency of
the incoming alternator is higher than the frequency of the alternator 1 (Bus-bar). If the frequencies
are equal, the pointer is at stationary position. The synchronizing switch is closed when the pointer is
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 stationary at 120 clock position in the synchroscope. This is the correct instant for closing the switch.
It is possible to parallel even the largest alternators without trouble.
2.18 Synchronizing Current:
Once a synchronous machine is synchronized, it will tend to remain in synchronism with the
other alternators. Any tendency to depart from the condition of synchronism is opposed by a
synchronizing torque produced due to circulating current flowing through the alternators.

When two alternators are in exact synchronism, the two alternators have equal induced emfs
which are in exact phase opposition as shown in Fig.2.21 a, no circulating current flows round the local
circuit.

E2 Fig.2.21 a E1

When the induced emfs of the two alternators are equal in magnitude but not in exact phase
opposition as shown in fig.2.21 b, their resultant emf acts round the local circuit causes flow of current
called the synchronizing current, Isy.

E2

∂
ER
E1

Isy
Fig.2.21b

If any alternator due to some disturbance tends to retard, E2 falls back by a phase angle δ
electrical degrees, as shown in fig.2.13b.
Now though their induced emfs E1 and E2 are in equal in magnitude but have a phase difference
of 180  − δ . Let each of the induced emfs E1 and E2 be equal to E.

180 − δ   δ δ
Resultant emf, E R = 2E cos   = 2E cos 90 −  = 2E sin
2   2 2


= 2E × δ = Eδ ∴ δ isverysmall
2

ER Eδ
Synchronizing Current, I sy = =
ZS Z S

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Where, Z S is the combined synchronous impedance per phase of the two alternators

The synchronizing current I SY lags behind the resultant emf ER by an angle θ given by
XS
θ = tan −1
Re
Where, Xs is the combined synchronous reactance and Re is the effective resistance of the two
alternators. If resistance Re is very small as compared to synchronous reactance Xs then,
Eδ
Synchronizing Current, I sy = and lags behind ER by 90 
XS

2.19 Synchronizing Power:

E1 I SY cos φ1 and the machine
In the parallel operation, machine no.1 supplies power equal to


(
no.2 receives power equal to E2 I SY cos 180 − φ2 .)
The power supplied by the machine no.1= Power supplied to machine no.2 + copper loses.
The power supplied by the machine no.1 is called synchronizing power and is given by the expression
E2
PSY = E1I SY cos φ1 = E1 I SY = E × δ = δ
E
 E1 = E and φ isverysmall
XS XS
3δE 2
Total synchronizing power for 3 phases = 3Psy =
XS
2.20 Synchronizing Torque:
2πNS
If Tsy, be the synchronizing torque in Nm, then the total synchronizing power 3P SY = T SY×
60
3PSY × 60
Or synchronizing torque, T SY =
2πNS

2.21 Load Sharing Between Two Alternators:

Consider two machines with identical speed –load characteristics running in parallel with a
common terminal voltage of V volts and load impedance Z.
Let the generated emfs of the two machines1 and 2 operating in parallel be E1 and E2
respectively and synchronous impedance per phase be Zs1 and Zs2 respectively.

Similarly

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 Also

From Equation (1) and (2), we have

And

Adding equation (4) and (5) and we have

or

Fig.2.22 Equivalent circuit for two alternators in parallel

From Equation (3)

or

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or

2.22 Infinite Bus Bar:

It is the general practise to operate a number of alternators in parallel in the generating stations. A
power system with a large number of alternators connected in parallel is called Infinite bus bar.
When large number of alternators are connected in parallel to an infinite bus-bar, the synchronous
impedance of the system is reduced to a very small value.( Since all the alternators are connected in
parallel). Irrespective of the changes or variations of the electrical loads on the system, the terminal
voltage and the bus-bar frequency are constant in an infinite bus-bar system.

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 REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART -A

1. What is leakage reactance ?

2. What is armature reactance ?
3. What is synchronous impedance ?
4. Mention the methods used for synchronization?
5. What is meant by voltage regulation?
6. Write the expression for regulation of alternator?
7. What is meant by load characteristics?
8. Name the two methods for determining the voltage regulation of alternator?
9. What is meant by synchronization of alternators?
10. What is effective armature resistance?
PART – B
1. What are the advantages of parallel operation of alternators?
2. Explain the effect of load on alternator.
3. Define the term synchronous reactance and synchronous impedance?
4. Draw the circuit diagram for short circuit test of 3 phase alternator?
5. What are the advantages of parallel operation of alternators?
6. What are the causes of voltage drop in alternator?
7. Draw the load characterist of 3 phase alternator?
8.
Draw the schematic diagram for synchronization of 3 alternators by synchroscope method.
9.
What is synchronizing current?
10. Write the three methods of synchronizing of alternators?
PART – C
1. Explain anyone method of parallel operation of alternators. Write the points to be followed for
parallel operation of alternators?
2. Discuss the load sharing of alternator in parallel?
3. Explain how to determine the regulation of alternator by zero power factor method?
4. In an alternator a given field current produces an armature current of 200 amps on short circuit
and a generated emf of 50v per phase on open circuit. The armature resistance is 0.1 ohm per
phase. Find the induced voltage when it delivers 100amps at 0.8 p.f. lagging with a terminal
with a terminal voltage of 200 volts per phase.
5. A 3phase star connected alternator is rated 200 KVA, at 1100V. The stator winding resistance
per phase is 0.5 ohm. Determine synchronous impedance per phase and voltage regulation at 0.8
p.f. lag and lead. Given that the open circuited voltage is 422 volts between the lines and short
circuit current is 105 amps.
6. Explain briefly the synchronizing of two three phase alternators by dark- bright lamp method.
7. Explain synchronizing current, synchronizing power, synchronizing torque.
8. Describe the synchronizing of two three phase alternators by synchroscope method.
9. With schematic diagram explain briefly the synchronizing of two 3 phase alternators by dark
lamp method.
10. Explain the EMF OR synchronous impedance method of predetermining the voltage regulation
of an alternator.
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