14 - Design of Experiments With Several Factors

14
14-1 Introduction
14-2 Factorial Experiments
Design of Experiments
with Several Factors
CHAPTER OUTLINE
14-6 Blocking & Confounding in the 2k
design
14-3 Two-Factor Factorial Experiments 14-7 Fractional Replication of the 2k
14-3.1 Statistical analysis of the fixed- Design
effects model 14-7.1 One-half fraction of the 2k design
14-3.2 Model adequacy checking 14-7.2 Smaller fractions: The 2k-p fractional
14-3.3 One observation per cell factorial
14-4 General Factorial Experiments 14-8 Response Surface Methods and
14-5 2k Factorial Designs Designs
14-5.1 2k design
14-5.2 2k design for k ≥3 factors
14-5.3 Single replicate of the 2k design
14-5.4 Addition of center points to a 2k
design
Chapter 14 Table of Contents 1
Learning Objectives for Chapter 14
After careful study of this chapter, you should be able to do the
following:
1. Design and conduct engineering experiments involving several factors
using the factorial design approach.
2. Know how to analyze and interpret main effects and interactions.
3. Understand how the ANOVA is used to analyze the data from these
experiments.
4. Assess model adequacy with residual plots.
5. Know how to use the two-level series of factorial designs.
6. Understand how two-level factorial designs can be run in blocks.
7. Design and conduct two-level fractional factorial designs.
8. Test for curvature in two-level factorial designs by using center points.
9. Use response surface methodology for process optimization experiments.
Chapter 14 Learning Objectives 2

© John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers, by Montgomery and Runger.
14-1: Introduction
• An experiment is a test or series of tests.

• The design of an experiment plays a major role in
the eventual solution of the problem.
• In a factorial experimental design, experimental
trials (or runs) are performed at all combinations of
the factor levels.
• The analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be used as
one of the primary tools for statistical data analysis.
3
14-2: Factorial Experiments
Definition
4
Figure 14-3 Factorial Experiment, no interaction.

5
Figure 14-4 Factorial Experiment, with interaction.

6
Figure 14-5 Three-dimensional surface plot of the data from Table 14-1, showing main
effects of the two factors A and B.
7
Figure 14-6 Three-dimensional surface plot of the data from Table 14-2, showing main
effects of the A and B interaction.
8
Figure 14-7 Yield versus reaction time with temperature constant at 155º F.
9
Figure 14-8 Yield versus temperature with reaction time constant at 1.7 hours.
10
Figure 14-9 Optimization

experiment using the one-factor-
at-a-time method.
11
14-3: Two-Factor Factorial Experiments
12
The observations may be described by the linear

statistical model:
13
14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model
14
15
16
To test H0: i = 0 use the ratio
To test H0: j = 0 use the ratio
To test H0: ()ij = 0 use the ratio
17
Definition
18
19

Example 14-1
20

Example 14-1
21
Example 14-1
22

Example 14-1
23
Example 14-1
24

Example 14-1
25

Example 14-1
Figure 14-10 Graph of

average adhesion force
versus primer types for both
application methods.
26

Minitab Output for Example 14-1
27
14-3.2 Model Adequacy Checking
28
Figure 14-11 Normal

probability plot of the
residuals from Example 14-1
29
Figure 14-12 Plot of residuals versus primer type.

30
Figure 14-13 Plot of residuals versus application method.

31
Figure 14-14 Plot of residuals versus predicted values.

32
14-4: General Factorial Experiments
Model for a three-factor factorial experiment
33
34
Example 14-2
35
Example 14-2
36
Example 14-2
37
14-5: 2k Factorial Designs
14-5.1 22 Design
Figure 14-15 The 22 factorial design.

38
14-5.1 22 Design
The main effect of a factor A is estimated by
39
14-5.1 22 Design
The main effect of a factor B is estimated by
40
14-5.1 22 Design
The AB interaction effect is estimated by
41
14-5.1 22 Design
The quantities in brackets in Equations 14-11, 14-12, and 14-
13 are called contrasts. For example, the A contrast is
ContrastA = a + ab – b – (1)
42
14-5.1 22 Design
Contrasts are used in calculating both the effect estimates and
the sums of squares for A, B, and the AB interaction. The
sums of squares formulas are
43
Example 14-3
44
Example 14-3
45
Example 14-3
46
Residual Analysis
Figure 14-16 Normal

probability plot of
residuals for the epitaxial
process experiment.
47
Residual Analysis
Figure 14-17 Plot of

residuals versus
deposition time.
48
Residual Analysis
Figure 14-18 Plot of

residuals versus arsenic
flow rate.
49
Residual Analysis
Figure 14-19 The standard deviation of epitaxial layer thickness at the four runs
in the 22 design.
50
14-5.2 2k Design for k  3 Factors
Figure 14-20 The 23 design. 51

Figure 14-21 Geometric
presentation of contrasts
corresponding to the main effects
and interaction in the 23 design. (a)
Main effects. (b) Two-factor
interactions. (c) Three-factor
interaction.
52

The main effect of A is estimated by
The main effect of B is estimated by
53

The main effect of C is estimated by
The interaction effect of AB is estimated by
54

Other two-factor interactions effects estimated by
The three-factor interaction effect, ABC, is estimated by
55
56
57
Contrasts can be used to calculate several quantities:
58
Example 14-4
59
Example 14-4
60
Example 14-4
61
Example 14-4
62
Example 14-4
63
Example 14-4
64
Residual Analysis
Figure 14-22 Normal

probability plot of residuals
from the surface roughness
experiment.
65
14-5.3 Single Replicate of the 2k Design
Example 14-5
66
Example 14-5
67
Example 14-5
68
Example 14-5
69
Example 14-5
70
Example 14-5
71
Example 14-5
Figure 14-23 Normal

probability plot of effects
from the plasma etch
experiment.
72
Example 14-5
Figure 14-24 AD (Gap-Power) interaction from the plasma etch experiment.

73
Example 14-5
74
Example 14-5
Figure 14-25 Normal

probability plot of residuals
from the plasma etch
experiment.
75
14-5.4 Additional Center Points to a 2k Design
A potential concern in the use of two-level

factorial designs is the assumption of the
linearity in the factor effect. Adding center
points to the 2k design will provide protection
against curvature as well as allow an
independent estimate of error to be obtained.
Figure 14-26 illustrates the situation.
76
Figure 14-26 A 22 Design

with center points.
77
A single-degree-of-freedom sum of squares for

curvature is given by:
78
Example 14-6
Figure 14-27 The 22 Design

with five center points for
Example 14-6.
79

Example 14-6
80

Example 14-6
81
Example 14-6
82
14-6: Blocking and Confounding in the 2k Design
Figure 14-28 A 22 design in two blocks. (a) Geometric view. (b) Assignment of the four runs to
two blocks.
83
Figure 14-29 A 23 design in two blocks with ABC confounded. (a) Geometric view. (b) Assignment
of the eight runs to two blocks.
84
General method of constructing blocks employs a

defining contrast
85
Example 14-7
86
Example 14-7
87
Example 14-7
Figure 14-30 A 24 design in two blocks for Example 14-7. (a) Geometric view. (b) Assignment of
the 16 runs to two blocks.
88
Example 14-7
Figure 14-31 Normal probability plot of the

effects from Minitab, Example 14-7.
89
Example 14-7
90
14-7: Fractional Replication of the 2k Design
14-7.1 One-Half Fraction of the 2k Design
91
14-7.1 One-Half Fraction of the 2k Design
Figure 14-32 The one-half fractions of the 23 design. (a) The principal fraction, I = +ABC. (B)
The alternate fraction, I = -ABC
92
Example 14-8
93
Example 14-8
Figure 14-33 The 24-1 design for the experiment of Example 14-8.
94
Example 14-8
95
Example 14-8
96
Example 14-8
97
Example 14-8
Figure 14-34 Normal probability plot of the effects from Minitab, Example 14-8.
98
Projection of the 2k-1 Design
Figure 14-35 Projection of a 23-1 design into three 22 designs.

99
Projection of the 2k-1 Design
Figure 14-36 The 22 design obtained by dropping factors B and C from the plasma etch
100
experiment in Example 14-8.
Design Resolution
101
14-7.2 Smaller Fractions: The 2k-p Fractional

Factorial
102
Example 14-9
103
Example 14-8
104
Example 14-9
105
Example 14-9
Figure 14-37 Normal probability plot

of effects for Example 14-9.
106
Example 14-9
Figure 14-38 Plot of AB (mold

temperature-screw speed)
interaction for Example 14-9.
107
108
Example 14-9
Figure 14-39 Normal probability plot

of residuals for Example 14-9.
109
Example 14-9
Figure 14-40 Residuals versus

holding time (C) for Example 14-9.
110
Example 14-9
Figure 14-41 Average shrinkage and range of shrinkage in factors A, B, and C for Example
14-9.
111
14-8: Response Surface Methods and Designs
Response surface methodology, or RSM , is a collection of mathematical

and statistical techniques that are useful for modeling and analysis in
applications where a response of interest is influenced by several variables
and the objective is to optimize this response.
112
Figure 14-42 A three-dimensional response surface showing the expected yield as a

function of temperature and feed concentration.
113
Figure 14-43 A contour plot of yield response surface in Figure 14-42.
114
The first-order model
The second-order model
115
Method of Steepest Ascent
116
Method of Steepest Ascent
Figure 14-44 First-order response

surface and path of steepest ascent.
117
Example 14-11
118
Example 14-11
Figure 14-45 Response surface plots for the first-order model in the Example 14-11.
119
Example 14-11
Figure 14-46 Steepest ascent experiment for Example 14-11.

120
Important Terms & Concepts of Chapter 14
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Normal probability plot of factor
Blocking & nuisance factors effects
Center points Optimization experiment
Central composite design Orthogonal design
Confounding Regression model
Contrast Residual analysis
Defining relation Resolution
Design matrix Response surface
Factorial experiment Screening experiment
Fractional factorial design Steepest ascent (or descent)
Generator 2k factorial design
Interaction Two-level factorial design
Main effect
Chapter 14 Summary 121

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14

Chapter 14 Learning Objectives 2

• An experiment is a test or series of tests.

Figure 14-3 Factorial Experiment, no interaction.

Figure 14-4 Factorial Experiment, with interaction.

Figure 14-9 Optimization

The observations may be described by the linear

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

To test H0: j = 0 use the ratio

To test H0: ()ij = 0 use the ratio

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

Figure 14-10 Graph of

14-3.1 Statistical Analysis of the Fixed-Effects Model

14-3.2 Model Adequacy Checking

14-3.2 Model Adequacy Checking

Figure 14-11 Normal

14-3.2 Model Adequacy Checking

Figure 14-12 Plot of residuals versus primer type.

Figure 14-13 Plot of residuals versus application method.

Figure 14-14 Plot of residuals versus predicted values.

Model for a three-factor factorial experiment

Figure 14-15 The 22 factorial design.

The main effect of a factor A is estimated by

The main effect of a factor B is estimated by

The AB interaction effect is estimated by

Figure 14-16 Normal

Figure 14-17 Plot of

Figure 14-18 Plot of

14-5.2 2k Design for k  3 Factors

Figure 14-20 The 23 design. 51

14-5.2 2k Design for k  3 Factors

The main effect of B is estimated by

14-5.2 2k Design for k  3 Factors

The interaction effect of AB is estimated by

14-5.2 2k Design for k  3 Factors

The three-factor interaction effect, ABC, is estimated by

14-5.2 2k Design for k  3 Factors

14-5.2 2k Design for k  3 Factors

14-5.2 2k Design for k  3 Factors

Contrasts can be used to calculate several quantities:

Figure 14-22 Normal

Figure 14-23 Normal

Figure 14-24 AD (Gap-Power) interaction from the plasma etch experiment.

Figure 14-25 Normal

14-5.4 Additional Center Points to a 2k Design

A potential concern in the use of two-level

14-5.4 Additional Center Points to a 2k Design

Figure 14-26 A 22 Design

14-5.4 Additional Center Points to a 2k Design

A single-degree-of-freedom sum of squares for

Figure 14-27 The 22 Design