SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Signal and System

• A Signal is the function of one or more independent variables that carries
some information to represent a physical phenomenon.
 System is an assemblage of entities/objects, real or abstract, comprising a
whole with each every component/element interacting or related to another
one.
Systems process input signals to produce output signals

 Examples
i. Motion, sound, picture, video, traffic light…
ii. Natural system (ecosystem), human-made system (machines, computer
storage system), abstract system (traffic, computer programs),
descriptive system (plans)
 SIGNALS PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

Processing: Methods and system that modify signals

x(t) System y(t)

Input/Stimulus Output/Response

Analysis:
• What information is contained in the input signal x(t)?
• What changes do the System imposed on the input?
• What is the output signal y(t)?
 Signal Examples
• Electrical signals --- voltages and currents in a
circuit
• Acoustic signals --- audio or speech signals
(analog or digital)
• Video signals --- intensity variations in an image
(e.g. a CAT scan)
• Biological signals --- sequence of bases in a
gene
• Noise: unwanted signal
:
 SIGNAL TYPES

Signals

Continuous-time Discrete-time

Continuous-value Discrete-value
Continuous-value

Analog Discrete Digital

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 The Independent Variables
 Can be continuous
 Trajectory of a space shuttle
 Mass density in a cross-section of a brain
 Can be discrete
 DNA base sequence
 Digital Image pixels
 However, we will focus on a single independent variable called
time.
 Continuous (CT) signals: x(t), t
 Discrete (DT) signals: x[n], n
 1. Continuous-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for all points in time
• Function of time
– Written as x(t) because the signal “x” is a function of time
• Commonly found in the physical world
– ex. Human speech
• Displayed graphically as a line

x(t)

t 7
 2. Discrete-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for only specific points in time
• Typically formed by “sampling” a continuous-time signal
– Taking the value of the original waveform at specific intervals in time
• Function of the sample value, n
– Write as x[n]
– Often called a sequence
• Commonly found in the digital world
– ex. wav file or mp3
• Displayed graphically as individual values
– Called a “stem” plot
x[n]

Sample number

8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n
 Examples: CT vs. DT Signals

x(t ) x[n]

t n

9
 Analog Signals
• Human Voice – best example
• Ear recognises sounds 20KHz or less
• AM Radio – 535KHz to 1605KHz
• FM Radio – 88MHz to 108MHz
 Digital signals
• Digital signals: discrete both in time and amplitude
– Example: attendance of this class, digitizes analog signals,…

• Represented by Square Wave

• All data represented by binary values
• Single Binary Digit – Bit
• Transmission of continuous group of bits is a bit stream
• Not all decimal values can be represented by binary
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Deterministic signals: completely specified functions of time. Predictable, no
uncertainty, e.g. , x(t )  A cos( t ) with A and are fixed.
0 0
Random signals (stochastic signals): take on random values at any given time
instant and characterized by pdf (probability density function). “Not completely
predictable”, “with uncertainty”, e.g. x(n) = dice value at the n-th toss.

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 Periodic vs. Aperiodic Signals
 Periodic signals have the property that x(t + T) = x(t) for all t.
 The smallest value of T that satisfies the definition is called the
period.
 Shown below are an aperiodic signal (left) and a periodic signal
(right).
 Periodic Signals
• . A periodic signal is a continuous time2p signal x(t), that
has the propertyx(t )  x(t  T )

• where t>0, for all t.

• Examples:
– cos(t+2p) = cos(t)
– sin(t+2p) = sin(t)
– Are both periodic with period 2p

• NB for a signal to be periodic,

15/25 the relationship must hold
 Causal vs. Non-causal
 A causal signal is zero for t < 0 and an non-causal signal is zero
for t > 0

 Right- and left-sided signals

A right-sided signal is zero for t < T and a left-sided signal is zero
for t > T where T can be positive or negative.
 Bounded vs. Unbounded
 Every system is bounded, but meaningful signal is always
bounded
 Odd and Even Signals
An even signal is identical to its time reversed signal, i.e. it
can be reflected in the origin and is equal to the original:
x( t )  x(t )
Examples:
x(t) = cos(t)
x(t) = c
An odd signal is identical to its negated, time reversed
signal, i.e. it is equal to the negative reflected signal
x(t )   x(t )
Examples:
x(t) = sin(t)
x(t) = t
This is important because any signal can be expressed as
the sum of an odd signal and an even signal.
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 Even vs. Odd
 Even signals xe(t) and odd signals xo(t) are defined as
xe(t) = xe(−t) and xo(t) = −xo(−t).
 Any signal is a sum of unique odd and even signals. Using
x(t) = xe(t)+xo(t) and x(−t) = xe(t) − xo(t), yields
xe(t) =0.5(x(t)+x(−t)) and xo(t) =0.5(x(t) − x(−t)).
 Elementary signals
Exponential signals
Sinusoidal signals
Step function
Rectangular pulse
Impulse function
Derivatives of the impulse
Ramp function

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 Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
Exponential and sinusoidal signals are characteristic of real-world
signals and also from a basis (a building block) for other
signals.
A generic complex exponential signal is of the form:
x(t )  Ceat
where C and a are, in general, complex numbers. Lets investigate
some special cases of this signal
Real exponential signals
Exponential growth Exponential decay
a0 a0
C 0 C 0

EE-2027 SaS, L2 21/25

 Periodic Complex Exponential &
Sinusoidal Signals
Consider when a is purely imaginary:
x(t )  Ce j0t
By Euler’s relationship, this can be expressed cos(1)
as:
e j0t  cos 0t  j sin 0t
This is a periodic signals because:
e j0 (t T )  cos 0 (t  T )  j sin 0 (t  T )
 cos 0t  j sin 0t  e j0t
when T=2p/0
A closely related signal is the sinusoidal T0 = 2p/0
signal: =p
x(t )  cos0t    0  2pf 0 T0 is the fundamental
We can always use: time period

A cos0t     A e j (0t  )  0 is the fundamental
A sin  t     Ae 
j (0t  )
frequency
0
 General Complex Exponential Signals
So far, considered the real and periodic complex exponential
Now consider when C can be complex. Let us express C is polar form
and a in rectangular form:
C  C e j
a  r  j 0
So
Ceat  C e j e( r  j0 )t  C ert e j (0  )t
Using Euler’s relation
Ceat  C e j e( r  j0 )t  C ert cos((0   )t )  j C ert sin(( 0   )t )
These are damped sinusoids
 Unit Step function

1, t  0
u (t )  
0 , t  0

Shift a
1
1, t  a
u (t  a)   t
0 , t  a
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Rectangular pulse

 A ,  0.5  t  0.5
x(t )  
 0 , otherwise
Impulse function

 (t )


(1)
 (t )dt  1 Amplitude 


 (t )  0 for t  0 t
width  0
Derivatives of the impulse

t
 (t )
(1)

t
Ramp function

t, t  0
r (t )  
0, t  0

dr (t ) t
u (t )  or r (t )   u ( )d
dt 

signals & systems 28

 r (t )

u (t )

 d
 (t ) dt

 (t )
 Discrete Unit Impulse and Step Signals
The discrete unit impulse signal is defined:
0 n  0
x[n]   [n]  
1 n  0
Useful as a basis for analyzing other signals

The discrete unit step signal is defined:

0 n  0
x[n]  u[n]  
1 n  0
Note that the unit impulse is the first
difference (derivative) of the step signal
 [n]  u[n]  u[n  1]
Similarly, the unit step is the running sum
(integral) of the unit impulse.

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 Exponential & Sinusoidal Signal Properties
Periodic signals, in particular complex periodic
and sinusoidal signals, have infinite total
energy but finite average power.
Consider energy over one period:
T0
E period   e j 0 t 2
dt
0
T0
  1dt  T0
0
Therefore:
E  
Average power:
1
Pperiod  E period  1
T0
Useful to consider harmonic signals

Terminology is consistent with its use in music,

where each frequency is an integer multiple of
a fundamental frequency

EE-2027 SaS, L2 31/25

 The Decibel (dB)
• Measure of power transfer

• 1 dB = 10 log10 (Pout / Pin)

• 1 dBm = 10 log10 (P / 10-3) where P is in Watts

• 1 dBmV = 20 log10 (V / 10-3) where V is in Volts

 Basic sequences and sequence
operations
• Delaying (Shifting) a sequence
y[n]  x[n  no ]
• Unit sample (impulse) sequence

0 n  0
[n]  
1 n  0
x[n]   x[k ] [n  k ]
k  

• Unit step sequence

0 n  0 n 
u [n ]      [k ]    [n  k ]
1 n  0 k  k 0
• Exponential sequences
x[n]  An
 “Electrical” Signal Energy & Power
• It is often useful to characterise signals by
measures such as energy and power
• For example, the instantaneous
1 2
p(t )  v(t )i (t )  v (t )
power
of a resistor is: R
t2 t2 1 2

t1
p(t )dt  
t1 R
v (t )dt
• and the total energy expanded over the
interval [t11, tt2]p(is: 1 t 1 2
t 2  t1 t1 t 2  t1 t1 R
t )dt 
2 2
v (t )dt

• and the average energy is:

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 Generic Signal Energy and Power
• Total energy of a continuous signal x(t)
t
over [t1, t2] is:E  t x(t ) dt
2 2

E  the
• where |.| denote
n2 2
nn
xmagnitude
[ n] of the
1

(complex) number.
• Similarly for a discrete time signal x[n] over
[n1, n2]:

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 Energy and Power over Infinite Time
• For many signals, we’re interested in examining the power and
energy over an infinite time interval (-∞, ∞). These quantities are
therefore defined by: T 
E  lim T   x(t ) dt   x(t ) dt
2 2
T 

E  lim N  n N x[n]  n x[n]

N 2  2

• If the sums or integrals do1notT converge, the energy of such a signal

2T T
P  lim T 
2
is infinite x(t ) dt
1

N
P  lim N 
2
x[ n ]
2 N  1 n N

• Two important (sub)classes of signals

1. Finite total energy (and therefore zero average power)
2. Finite average power (and therefore infinite total energy)
• Signal analysis over infinite time, all depends on the “tails” (limiting
EE-2027 SaS, L2 behaviour) 36/25
 Energy Signals & Power Signals
• Energy: T
E  lim  | x(t ) |2 dt
T  T
• Power: 1 T
P  lim 
2
| x (t ) | dt
• Energy signals: iff T  2T T
0  E   ( P  0)
• Power signals: iff
0  P   ( E  )
• Examples: t
x1 (t )  Ae u(t )
x2 (t )  Au(t )
x3 (t )  A cos(0t   )
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 Power and Energy Signals

• Power Signal • Energy Signal

– Infinite duration – Finite duration
– Normalized power – Normalized energy
is finite and non- is finite and non-
zero zero
– Normalized energy – Normalized power
averaged over averaged over
infinite time is infinite time is zero
infinite – Physically
– Mathematically realizable
tractable
• Although “real” signals are energy signals, we
analyze them pretending they are power signals!
• If x(t) is periodic, then it is meaningless to find its
energy; we only need to check its power.
• Noise is often persistent and is often a power
signal.
• Deterministic and aperiodic signals are often
energy signals.
• A realizable LTI system can be represented by a
signal and mostly is a energy signal.
• Power measure is useful for signal and noise
analysis.
• The energy and power classifications of signals
are mutually exclusive (cannot be both at the 39
same time). But a signal can be neither energy
 TIME SIGNALS DESCRIPTION

P1
14. Power Ratio PR  10 log10 The unit is decibel (db)
P2

In Electronic Engineering and Telecommunication

power is usually resulted from applying voltage V to
a resistive load
V2
P
R, as R

Alternative expression for power ratio (same resistive load):

P1 V12 / R
PR  10 log10  10 log10 2
P2 V2 / R
V1
 20 log10
V2