Cryptography and Network Security

Cryptography and
Network Security
Chapter 3
Fifth Edition
by William Stallings
Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

Modified by Richard Newman
What is meant by the security of an
Encryption Scheme ?
1. An adversary who gets hold of a ciphertext should not
be able to get the secret key used for the encryption.
be able to know the plaintext.
be able to get any bit of the plaintext.
be able to get any meaningful information about the
plaintext.
be able to get any function of the bits of the plaintext.
Block vs Stream Ciphers
Block Cipher Principles
 most symmetric block ciphers are based on a
Feistel Cipher Structure
 needed since must be able to decrypt ciphertext
to recover messages efficiently
 block ciphers look like an extremely large
substitution
 would need table of 264 entries for a 64-bit block
 instead create from smaller building blocks
 using idea of a product cipher
Ideal Block Cipher
permutation
Claude Shannon and Substitution-
Permutation Ciphers
 Claude Shannon introduced idea of substitution-
permutation (S-P) networks in 1949 paper
 form basis of modern block ciphers
 S-P nets are based on the two primitive
cryptographic operations seen before:
 substitution (S-box)
 permutation (P-box)
 provide confusion & diffusion of message & key
Confusion and Diffusion
 cipher needs to completely obscure
statistical properties of original message
 a one-time pad does this
 more practically Shannon suggested
combining S & P elements to obtain:
 diffusion – dissipates statistical structure
of plaintext over bulk of ciphertext
 confusion – makes relationship between
ciphertext and key as complex as possible
 Horst Feistel devised the Feistel cipher
 based on concept of invertible product cipher
 partitions input block into two halves
 process through multiple rounds which
 perform a substitution on left data half
 based on round function of right half & subkey
 then have permutation swapping halves
 implements Shannon’s S-P net concept
Decryption is similar to Encryption
DES History
 IBM developed Lucifer cipher
 by team led by Feistel in late 60’s
 used 64-bit data blocks with 128-bit key
 then redeveloped as a commercial cipher
with input from NSA and others
 in 1973 NBS issued request for proposals
for a national cipher standard
 IBM submitted their revised Lucifer which
was eventually accepted as the DES
DES Encryption Overview
Expansion from 32 bits to 48 bits
Table 6.6 Expansion P-box table
6.14
DES Round Structure
 uses two 32-bit L & R halves
 as for any Feistel cipher can describe as:
Li = Ri–1
Ri = Li–1  F(Ri–1, Ki)
 F takes 32-bit R half and 48-bit subkey:
 expands R to 48-bits using perm E
 adds to subkey using XOR
 passes through 8 S-boxes to get 32-bit result
 finally permutes using 32-bit perm P
DES Round Structure
DES Round Structure
5.1.3 Continued
Example 5.8
In an S-box with three inputs and two outputs, we have
The S-box is linear because a1,1 = a1,2 = a1,3 = a2,1 = 1 and

a2,2 = a2,3 = 0. The relationship can be represented by
matrices, as shown below:
5.18
5.1.3 Continued
Example 5.9
In an S-box with three inputs and two outputs, we have
where multiplication and addition is in GF(2). The S-box is

nonlinear because there is no linear relationship between
the inputs and the outputs.
5.19
6.2.2 Continue
Table 6.3 S-box 1
6.20
6.2.2 Continued
Example 6.3
The input to S-box 1 is 100011. What is the output?
Solution
If we write the first and the sixth bits together, we get 11 in
binary, which is 3 in decimal. The remaining bits are 0001 in
binary, which is 1 in decimal. We look for the value in row 3,
column 1, in Table 6.3 (S-box 1). The result is 12 in decimal,
which in binary is 1100. So the input 100011 yields the output
1100.
6.21
6.2.2 Continued
Example 6.4
The input to S-box 8 is 000000. What is the output?
Solution
If we write the first and the sixth bits together, we get 00 in
binary, which is 0 in decimal. The remaining bits are 0000 in
binary, which is 0 in decimal. We look for the value in row 0,
column 0, in Table 6.10 (S-box 8). The result is 13 in decimal,
which is 1101 in binary. So the input 000000 yields the output
1101.
6.22
DES Key Schedule
 forms subkeys used in each round
 initial permutation of the key (PC1) which
selects 56-bits in two 28-bit halves
 16 stages consisting of:
• rotating each half separately either 1 or 2 places
depending on the key rotation schedule K
• selecting 24-bits from each half & permuting them
by PC2 for use in round function F
 note practical use issues in h/w vs s/w
DES Key Schedule
6.2.3 Continued
Figure 6.10
Key generation
6.25
6.2.3 Continued
Table 6.12 Parity-bit drop table
Table 6.13 Number of bits shifts
6.26
6.2.3 Continued
Table 6.14 Key-compression table
6.27
DES Decryption
 decrypt must unwind steps of data computation
 with Feistel design, do encryption steps again
using subkeys in reverse order (SK16 … SK1)
 IP undoes final FP step of encryption
 1st round with SK16 undoes 16th encrypt round
 ….
 16th round with SK1 undoes 1st encrypt round
 then final FP undoes initial encryption IP
 thus recovering original data value
DES Round Decryption
DES Example
Avalanche Effect
 key desirable property of encryption alg
 where a change of one input or key bit
results in changing approx half output bits
 making attempts to “home-in” by guessing
keys impossible
 DES exhibits strong avalanche
Avalanche in DES
original
modified
Strength of DES – Key Size
 56-bit keys have 256 = 7.2 x 1016 values
 brute force search looked hard
 advances have shown is possible
 in 1997 on Internet in a few months
 in 1998 on dedicated h/w (EFF) in a few days
 in 1999 above combined in 22hrs!
 still must be able to recognize plaintext
 Forced to consider alternatives to DES
Key complementation property

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Cryptography and

Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

Table 6.6 Expansion P-box table

The S-box is linear because a1,1 = a1,2 = a1,3 = a2,1 = 1 and

where multiplication and addition is in GF(2). The S-box is

Table 6.3 S-box 1

The input to S-box 1 is 100011. What is the output?

The input to S-box 8 is 000000. What is the output?

Table 6.12 Parity-bit drop table

Table 6.13 Number of bits shifts

Table 6.14 Key-compression table

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