Geotech Lec

SOIL MECHANICS
Prepared by:
Engr. Mark Joseph T. Bugarin
GRADING SYSTEM
Attendance 10%
Assignment 10 %
Quizzes 30%
Final Exams 40%
Project & Notebook 10%
70%
PASSING
CHAPTER 1
Soil Formation
Assignment 1
1. The net weight of a soil specimen before drying
is 205 grams and its dried weight after drying in
an oven at 105 degrees Celsius for 24 hours is
171 grams. The volume of the specimen before
drying is 122 cc. If the specific gravity of the
soil sample is 2.62, determine the following:
a. Moisture content in %.
b. Void ratio.
c. Effective unit weight in kN/cu.m
d. Degree of saturation in %
Project 1
Introduction to Soil Mechanics
A. Define/Explain/Illustrate the following

terms:
1. Geotechnical Engineering
• Soil Mechanics
• Foundation Engineering
B. Historical Perspective
1. Prior to 18th Century
2. Pre-Classical Period (1700 – 1776)
• Henry Gautier
• Bernard Forest de Belidor
• Francois Gadroy
• John Grundy
• Jean – Rodolphe Perronet
3. Classical Period – Phase I (1776 – 1856)
• Charles Augustin Coulomb
• Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier
• Jean Victor Poncelet
• Alexander Collin
• William John Macquorn Rankine
4. Classical Period – Phase II (1856 - 1910)
• Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy
• George Howard Darwin
• Joseph Valentin Bousinessq
• Osborne Reynold
5. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910 - 1927)
• Albert Mauritz Atterberg
• Jean Fontard
• Arthur Langley Bell
• Wolmar Fellenius
• Karl Terzaghi
6. Geotechnical Engineering After 1927

C. Soil and its Constituents
1. Origin of Soil
a. Rock Cycle
 Three Main Types of Rock
 Igneous Rocks
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks
b. Geological Cycle
 Erosion
 Transportation
 Deposition
c. Weathering of Rocks
 Mechanical or Physical Weathering
 Frost Action / Ice Wedging
 Abrasion
 Exfoliation
 Chemical Weathering
 Oxidation
 Hydration
 Carbonation
d. Residual Soil
e. Transportation of Soil
 Transported Soil
 Aeolian / Eolian Soil
 Glacial
 Colluvial Soil
 Alluvial Soil
f. Deposition of Soil
 Deposited Soil
 Dune
 Glacial Till
 Colluvium
 Alluvium
 Lacustrine Soil
 Loess
 Marine Soil
 Peat
D. Causes of Soil Changes
a. Addition
b. Loss
c. Translocation
d. Transformation
E. Soil Profile
a. Soil Horizon
 A Horizon
 E Horizon
 B Horizon
 C Horizon
 R Horizon
F. Clay Minerals
a. Kaolinite
b. Illite
c. Montmorillonite
G. Structure of Soils
a. Single-grained Structure
b. Honey-combed Structure
c. Flocculent Structure
H. Some Types of Soil
a. Bentonite
b. Black Cotton Soil
c. Boulder Clay
d. Caliche
e. Hardpan
f. Laterite
g. Loam
h. Moorum
i. Varved Clay
CHAPTER 2
Soil Composition
Composition of Soil
Composition of Soil
Volumetric Ratios
1. Void Ratio
2. Porosity
3. Degree of
Saturation
4. Air Content
5. Air Void Ratio
Composition of Soil
Weight – Volume Relationship
1. Moisture Content
2. Bulk / Mass / Total / Wet / Moist
Unit Weight
3. Dry Unit Weight
4. Saturated Unit Weight
5. Unit Weight of Soil Solids
6. Submerged / Buoyant / Effective
Unit Weight
7. Bulk / Mass Specific Gravity
8. Specific Gravity of Soil Solids
Basic Relationships:

Other useful relationships:

Bulk / Total / Moist / Wet Unit Weight

Dry Unit Weight

Saturated Unit Weight

Effective / Buoyant / Submerged Unit Weight
Problem 1

The moist unit weight of the soil is. Given
that and water content of . Determine the
following:
a) Dry unit weight.

b) Void ratio.
c) Porosity.
d) Degree of saturation.
e) Weight of water to be added per cubic meter of
soil to attain 100% degree of saturation.
Problem 2

A clay sample has unit weight of at moisture
content of . When completely saturated with
water, its unit weight is . Determine the
porosity and the specific gravity of the soil
solids.
Problem 3

A sample of saturated clay was placed in a
container and weighed. The weight was . The
clay in its container was placed in an oven for
at . The weight reduced to a constant weight
of The weight of the container is Use
Determine the following:
a) Bulk unit weight.
b) Dry density.
c) Weight of water to be evaporated to attain 30%
degree of saturation.
Problem 4

The embankment for a highway wide and in
compacted thickness is to be constructed from
a sandy soil trucked from a borrow pit. The
water content of the sandy soil in the borrow
pit is and its void ratio is . The specification
requires the embankment be compacted to a
dry unit weight of . Length of embankment is .
Assume . Determine the following:
a) Dry unit weight in the borrow site
b) Volume of borrow material required.
SWELL FACTOR
FREE SWELL
The ratio of the volume of the excavated material

to the volume of the in-situ material (borrow pit
material)

Problem 5

A building requires a fill at void ratio of 20%.
Material for earth fill was available from a
borrow site at . It was found that the average
void ratio from the site is 80% and free swell
of 25%. Determine the following:
a) Volume of solid required from the borrow pit.
b) Total volume required from the borrow pit.
c) Total cost of the fill.
CHAPTER 3
Index Properties
And
Soil Classification
Index Properties
SOIL COLOR
The color of the soil mainly depends upon the
minerals, organic matters present in the soil
mass.
Red, Brown or Yellow – Iron compounds
Black – Manganese compounds
Gray or White – Absence of compounds
Light Gray – Small amount of organic
matter
Index Properties
PARTICLE SHAPE
Index Properties
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity of the soil solids is useful in the
determination of void-ratio, degree of saturation,
etc., besides the ‘Critical Hydraulic gradient’, and
‘Zero-air-voids’ in compaction. It is useful in
computing the unit weight of the soil under different
conditions and also in the determination of particle
size by wet analysis. Hence, the specific gravity of
soil solids should be determined with great precision.
Index Properties
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Soil Type Gs
Quartz Sand 2.64 - 2.65
Silt 2.68 – 2.72
Silt with organic 2.40 – 2.50
matter
Clay 2.44 – 2.92
Bentonite 2.34
Loess 2.65 – 2.75
Lime 2.70
Peat 1.26 – 1.80
Humus 1.37
Index Properties
DENSITY INDEX (RELATIVE DENSITY)
Indicates the relative compactness of the soil mass.
This is used in relation to coarse-grained soils or sands.

In a dense condition, the void ratio is low whereas in a
loose condition, the void ratio is high. Thus, the in-
place void ratio may be determined and compared,
with the void ratio in the loosest state and that in the
densest state.
Index Properties

Index Properties
Description Relative Unit
Density, % Weight,
kN/m3
Very Loose 0 – 15
< 14
Loose 15 – 35
Medium Dense 35 – 65 14 – 17
Dense 65 – 85 17 – 20
Very Dense 85 – 100 > 20
McCarthy, 1997
Problem 6
For a given sand, the maximum and minimum

void ratios are 0.78 and 0.43 respectively.
Given Gs = 2.67. Determine the dry unit
weight of the soil in kN/m3 when the relative
density is 65%.
Problem 7
A loose, uncompacted sand fill 6ft in depth
has a relative density of 40%. Laboratory
tests indicated that the minimum and
maximum void ratios of sand are 0.46 and
0.90 respectively. Use Gs = 2.65.
a) What is the dry unit weight of the sand?
b) If the sand is compacted to a relative density of
75%, what is the new thickness of the fill?
Index Properties
IN-SITU UNIT WEIGHT
Determination of in-situ unit weight is made on borrow-pit soils
so as to estimate the quantity of soil required for placing and
compacting a certain fill or embankment. During the
construction of compacted fills, it is standard practice to make
in-situ determination of a unit weight of the soil after it is placed
to ensure that the compaction effort has been adequate.

Two important methods for the determination of the in-situ unit
weight are being given:
(i) Sand-replacement method.
(ii) Core-cutter method.
Index Properties
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
This classification test determines the range of sizes of
particles in the soil and the percentage of particles in each
of these size ranges. This is also called ‘grain-size
distribution’; ‘mechanical analysis’ means the separation of
a soil into its different size fractions.

The particle-size distribution is found in two stages:
(i) Sieve analysis, for the coarse fraction.
(ii) Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis, for the fine
fraction.
Index Properties
PARTICLE SIZE
SIEVING
The most direct method for determining particle sizes,
but there are practical lower limits to sieve openings
that can be used for soils. This lower limit is
approximately at the smallest size attributed to sand
particles (75μ or 0.075 mm). Sieving is a screening
process in which coarser fractions of soil are separated
by means of a series of graded mesh. Mechanical
analysis is one of the oldest test methods for soils.
Index Properties
Designatio Opening, Designatio Opening,
n mm n mm
2 in 50.80 35 0.50
1 ½ in 38.10 40 0.425
¼ in 19.00 50 0.30
3/8 in 9.51 60 0.25
4 4.75 70 0.21
8 2.36 80 0.18
10 2.00 100 0.150
14 1.41 120 0.125
16 1.18 170 0.088
18 1.00 200 0.075
20 0.85 270 0.053
30 0.60 325 0.044
Index Properties

STEPS:
1. Percentage retained on any sieve,

r
2. Cumulative percentage retained on

each sieve, R
3. Percentage finer, F
Problem 8
A sample of a dry coarse-grained material of

mass 500 grams was shaken through a nest of
sieves and the following results were obtained:
Problem 8
Mass
Sieve No. Retained, r (%) R (%) F (%)
g
4 0
10 14.8
20 98
40 90.1
100 181.9
200 108.8
Pan 6.1
Problem 8
Mass
Sieve No. Retained, r (%) R (%) F (%)
g
4 0 0 0 100
10 14.8 2.962 2.962 97.038
20 98 19.612 22.574 77.426
40 90.1 18.031 40.605 59.395
100 181.9 36.402 77.007 22.993
200 108.8 21.773 98.780 1.220
Pan 6.1 1.221 100.001 0.001

Index Properties
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
Particle-Size Distribution

A particle-size distribution curve can be used
to determine the following five parameters
for a given soil:
EFFECTIVE SIZE,
Diameter corresponding to 10% finer.
AVERAGE SIZE,
Diameter corresponding to 50% finer.

for a given soil:
UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT,

for a given soil:
COEFFICIENT OF GRADATION,

for a given soil:
SORTING COEFFICIENT,
Problem 9
From the previous laboratory results in sieve
analysis presented in Problem 8, determine
the following parameters:
a. Effective Size
b. Average Size
c. Uniformity Coefficient
d. Coefficient of Curvature
e. Sorting Coefficient
..
.
.
.
.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Soil classification is used to specify a certain soil

type that is best suited for a given application.
Also it can be used to establish a soil profile
along a desired cross section of soil mass.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
1. USDA
United State Department of Agriculture
2. USCS
Unified Soil Classification System
3. ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials
4. AASHTO
American Association for State Highway and
Transportation Officials
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
1. USDA Classification System
SAND 2.0mm to 0.05mm diameter
SILT 0.05mm to 0.002mm diameter
CLAY smaller than 0.002mm diameter

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
USDA
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
USDA

Modifications:
Problem 10
Data shown is to be classified according to
the USDA textural classification system.
a. Classification of Soil A.
b. Classification of Soil B.
c. Classification of Soil C.
Problem 10
SOIL
(%)
A B C
Gravel 0 21 10
Sand 18 12 20
Silt 24 35 41
Clay 58 32 29
Problem 10
SOIL
(%) B C
A
(Modified) (Modified)
Gravel 0 0 0
Sand 18 15.190 22.222
Silt 24 44.304 45.556
Clay 58 40.506 32.222

Problem 10
SOIL A USDA Classification
Gravel 0 SOIL A
Sand 18 CLAY
Silt 24
Clay 58
Problem 10
SOIL B
Gravel 0 USDA Classification
Sand
15.19 SOIL B
0
44.30 GRAVELLY SILTY CLAY
Silt
4
40.50
Clay
6
Problem 10
SOIL C
Gravel 0 USDA Classification
Sand
22.22 SOIL C
2
45.55 GRAVELLY CLAY LOAM
Silt
6
32.22
Clay
2
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
2. AASHTO Classification System
0.001 0.005 0.075 0.425 2.0 75

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
AASHTO
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
AASHTO
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
AASHTO
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
AASHTO
Group Index (GI)

Problem 11
Test results of particle size distribution of

three samples are shown: Using AASHTO,
a. Classification of Soil A
b. Classification of Soil B
c. Classification of Soil C
Problem 11
Percentage
Opening Passing
Sieve
,
Size
(mm) A B C
4 4.75 94 100 100

10 2.00 63 100 100
20 0.85 21 98 100
40 0.425 10 93 94
60 0.25 7 88 82
100 0.15 5 83 66
200 0.075 3 77 45
0.01 - 65 26
0.002 - 60 21
LL - 63 36
PI NP 25 22
Problem 11
SOIL A
4 94
10 63
20 21 AASHTO Classification
40 10
60 7 SOIL A
100 5 A-1-b (0)
200 3
-
-
LL -
N
PI
P
Problem 11
SOIL B
4 100
10 100
20 98
60 88 SOIL B
10
83 A-7-5 (23)
0
20
77
0
65
60
LL 63
PI 25
Problem 11
SOIL C
4 100
10 100
20 100
60 82 SOIL C
10
66 A-6 (5)
0
20
45
0
26
21
LL 36
PI 22
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
3. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
0.075 0.425 2.0 4.75 19 75 300

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
USCS
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
USCS
Problem 12
The table shows the laboratory results of the

sieve analysis of a sample. Classify the soil
according to USCS.
Problem 12
Opening, Percentag
Sieve Size
(mm) e Passing
4 4.76 90
8 2.38 64
10 2.00 58
20 0.84 35
40 0.42 22
60 0.25 15
100 0.149 10
200 0.074 4
Problem 12
Siev %
e Passin
Size g
4 90
8 64
10 58
20 35
40 22
60 15
100 10
200 4
Problem 12
%
Openin
g
Passin
g
4.76 90
2.38 64
2.00 58
0.84 35
0.42 22
0.25 15
0.149 10
0.074 4
USCS
SW
Well-graded
Sand
CONSISTENCY OF CLAY SOIL
“Soil Consistency” refers to the strength with

which the soil materials are held together. It is
the resistance of soils to flow, deform and
rupture. It may also be looked upon as the degree
of firmness of the soil.
CONSISTENCY OF CLAY SOIL
Consistency of Clay Soils
Consistency Limits (Atterberg Limits) and Indices.
1. LIQUID LIMIT
is defined as the arbitrary limit of water content at
which the soil is just about to pass from the plastic state
into the liquid state. At this limit, the soil possesses a
small value of shear strength, losing its ability to flow as
a liquid. In other words, the liquid limit is the minimum
moisture content at which the soil tends to flow as a
liquid.
LD1. Casagrande Apparatus.

LIQUID LIMIT corresponds
to the 25th blow.
One Point Method.

x=0.092 ; LL<50%
X=0.120; LL>50%
LD1. Casagrande Apparatus.

Problem 13
The following results were obtained from a liquid
limit test on a clay using the Casagrande Cup
Device. Assume Gs = 2.67.
Number of Blows 6 12 20 28 32
Water Content, % 52.5 47.1 42.3 38.6 37.5
a. Determine the Liquid Limit of the sample.

b. Determine the flow index.
c. Determine the void ratio at liquid limit.
Problem 13
.
. .
39.929
% ..
L
L
2
LD2. Fall Cone Penetrometer.
LIQUID LIMIT corresponds to the

20mm depth of penetration of 80-g
cone.
LD2. Fall Cone Penetrometer.

2. PLASTIC LIMIT
is the arbitrary limit of water content at which the
soil tends to pass from the plastic state to the semi-
solid state of consistency. Thus, this is the minimum
water content at which the change in shape of the
soil is accompanied by visible cracks, i.e., when
worked upon, the soil crumbles.
LD1. Plastic limit is defined as the moisture

content at which the soil crumbles, when rolled
into threads of 3.2mm (1/8”)

LD2. Using cone penetrometer (fall cone method)

with two masses of cone (80 g and 240 g), PL can be
determined by this equation:

Problem 14
The following results were obtained from the
Cone Penetrometer Laboratory Experiment.
a. Determine the Liquid Limit.

b. Determine the Plastic Limit.
Problem 14
For 80-g cone
Penetration, mm 16 17.5 22.8 26.5
Water Content, % 42.5 47.5 58.1 60
For 240-g cone

Penetration, mm 10 17.3 24 28
Water Content, % 21.2 38.2 46.1 51.9

Problem 14
80-g
. ..

.
.. .
240-
g
.
Consistency Limits (Atterberg Limits) and
Indices.
3. SHRINKAGE LIMIT
is the arbitrary limit of water content at
which the soil tends to pass from the semi-
solid to the solid state. It is that water
content at which a soil, regardless, of further
drying, remains constant in volume.
LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated from

this equation:

LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated from

this equation:

LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated using the

plasticity chart for any known value of LL and PI:
INTERSECTION:
LL = -43.5
PI = - 46.5
Problem 15
The following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:
Initial volume of the soil in saturated state = 24.6 cc

Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9cc
Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0g
Final mass in a dry state = 30.1g
a. Determine the Shrinkage Limit.

b. Determine the Shrinkage Ratio.
c. Determine the Specific Gravity.
Problem 16
A laboratory test was conducted to determine the liquid limit
of a soil sample. The following data were obtained:
Mass of shrinkage dish= 17.50g

Mass of shrinkage dish and wet soil = 78.1g
Mass of shrinkage dish and oven-dried soil = 64.4g
Mass of shrinkage dish and mercury = 422g
Mass of dish = 130g
Mass of dish and displaced mercury = 462g
a. Determine the Shrinkage Limit.

b. Determine the Shrinkage Ratio.
c. Determine the Specific Gravity.

Indices.
4. PLASTICITY INDEX
is the range of water content within
which the soil exhibits plastic properties. It is
the difference between liquid and plastic
limit.
Indices.

Indices.
5. SHRINKAGE INDEX
is defined as the difference between the
plastic and the shrinkage limit of the soil. It
is the range of water content within which
the soil is in a semi-solid state.

Indices.
6. LIQUIDITY INDEX
is the ratio of the difference between the
natural water content and plastic limit to the
plasticity index.

Indices.
7. CONSISTENCY INDEX
is the ratio of the difference between the
liquid limit and natural water content to the
plasticity index.
Indices.

Indices.
8. TOUGHNESS INDEX
is the ratio of the plasticity index to the
flow index.
Activity of Clay
Is defined as the ratio pf the plasticity index
to the percentage of clay sizes.

where μ is the percentage of clay sizes, i.e.

of particle sizes less than 0.002mm.
Activity of Clay
Activity Classification
Less than 0.75 Inactive
0.75 to 1.25 Normal
1.25 to 2 Active
Greater than 6 Very Highly Active
Activity Classification
0.30 to 0.50 Kaolinite
0.50 to 1.30 Illite
4.00 to 7.00 Na-Montmorillonite
0.50 to 2.00 Ca-Montmorillonite
Problem 17
The following data shows the results of the laboratory
experiments to determine the soil indices. Determine the
following:
a. Natural water content
b. Liquid Limit
c. Flow Index
d. Plastic Limit
e. Shrinkage limit
f. Plasticity Index (Description of Soil)
g. Shrinkage Index
h. Liquidity Index (Description of Soil)
i. Toughness Index
Problem 17
Natural Water Content Determination
TEST NUMBER 1 2
Weight of container and wet soil,
17.53 16. 97
g
Weight of container and dry soil,
14.84 14.36
g
Weight of container, g 7.84 7.53
Problem 17
Liquid Limit Determination
TEST NUMBER 1 2 3 4
Number of blows 39 23 20 13
Weight of container and wet soil, g 22.24 21.19 21.27 26.12
Weight of container and dry soil, g 19.44 18.78 18.75 22.10
Weight of container, g 12.74 13.24 13.06 13.27

Problem 17
Plastic Limit Determination
TEST NUMBER 1 2
Weight of container and wet soil, g 22.12 21.84
Weight of container and dry soil, g 20.42 20.19
Weight of container, g 13.07 13.18

Problem 17
Shrinkage Limit Determination
Weight determination
Weight of shrinkage dish and wet soil, g 87.85
Weight of shrinkage dish and dry soil, g 76.91
Weight of shrinkage dish, g 52.70
Volumetric determination
Weight of dish and displaced mercury, g 430.80
Weight of dish, g 244.62
Density of soil solid, kg/cu.m 2650
Problem 18
Specific Gravity Determination
In a specific gravity test with pycnometer, the
following observed readings are available:
Weight of the empty pycnometer = 7.50N

Weight of pycnometer and dry soil = 17.30N
Weight of pycnometer, dry soil and water filling the
remaining volume = 22.45N
Weight of pycnometer and water = 16.30N
Determine the specific gravity of the soil solids,

ignoring the effect of temperature.
Problem 19
In a specific gravity test:
Weight of dry soil taken = 0.66g

Weight of pycnometer, soil and water = 6.756g
Weight of pycnometer and water = 6.3395g
Temperature of the test = 30 degree C
Specific gravity of water at test temperature =
0.99568
Determine the specific gravity at temperature test.

Problem 20
In a specific gravity test:
Weight of the dry soil = 1.04N

Weight of bottle, soil and water = 5.38N
Weight of bottle and water = 4.756N
a. What is the specific gravity of soil solids.

b. If while obtaining the weight 5.38N, 3 mL of air
remained entrapped in the suspension,
determine the percentage error.
Problem 21
Field Unit Weight Determination
Following are the results of a field unit weight
determination test using the sand cone method.
Dry unit weight of sand = 16.36 kN/cu.m

Weight of sand to fill the cone = 11.15N
Weight of jar, cone and sand (before use) = 58.9N
Weight of jar, cone and sand (after use) = 27.65N
Weight of moist soil from the hole = 32.55 N
Moisture content of moist soil = 11.6%
Determine the field dry unit weight.

Problem 22
Activity of Clay
The liquid limit and plastic limit of a clay

are 100% and 25% respectively. From a
hydrometer analysis, it has been found that
the clay soil consists of 50% of particles
smaller than 0.002mm. Indicate the activity
classification of clay and the probable type
of clay mineral.
CHAPTER 4
Soil Compaction
COMPACTION
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil

by removal of air which requires mechanical energy
to decrease its porosity and thereby increase its
dry density. The degree of compaction of a soil is
measured in terms of its dry unit weight.
COMPACTION
The following are the important effects of compaction:
1. Compaction increases the dry density of the soil,

thus increasing its shear strength and bearing
capacity through an increase in frictional
characteristics.
2. Compaction decreases the tendency for settlement
of soil.
3. Compaction brings about a low permeability of the
soil.
COMPACTION
COMPACTION
Effect of Compaction Effort
STANDARD PROCTOR
TEST
EFFECT OF COMPACTION EFFORT
The “compaction energy per unit volume, E” used
for the standard proctor test can be given as:
Nb Number of blows per layer

n Number of layers
Wh Weight of hammer
hd Height of drop of hammer
EFFECT OF COMPACTION ENERGY
ON A SANDY CLAY
EFFECT OF SOIL TYPE
EFFECT OF SOIL TYPE
Problem 23
Determine the compaction energy per unit

volume of Methods A, B and C for:
a. Standard Proctor Test

b. Modified Proctor Test
Problem 23
MODIFIED PROCTOR TEST

Maximum dry density:
Optimum moisture content:


Maximum relative dry density for granular
soils with less than 5% fines;
Problem 24
For a granular soil, the following are given:
Gs = 2.6
LL40 = 20%
R4 = 20%
Based on Modified Proctor test, estimate;
a. Maximum dry density.
b. Optimum moisture content.
Problem 25
For a sand with 4% finer than No. 200

sieve, estimate the maximum relative
density of compaction that may be
obtained from Modified Proctor Test. Given
D50 = 1.4mm.
SATURATION (ZERO-AIR VOIDS) LINE
The line showing the relation between water
content and dry density at a constant degree
of saturation.

Problem 26
The laboratory test results of a standard
proctor test are given in the following table:
a. Plot the Dry Unit Weight vs Moisture

Content.
b. Determine the maximum dry unit weight
and optimum moisture content.
c. Plot the Zero-Air Void Line for S = 80, 90,
and 100%. Use Gs = 2.7.
Problem 26
Weight of moist soil in
Moisture Content, %
mold, N
16.81 10
17.84 12
18.41 14
18.33 16
17.84 18
17.35 20
Problem 26
18
. .
17
.
.
16 .
15
.
14
10 12 14 16 18 20
COMPACTION
VS
CONSOLIDATION
FIELD COMPACTION
COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS:
1. Smooth-Wheel / Smooth-Drum Rollers

2. Pneumatic Rubber-Tired Rollers
3. Sheepsfoot Rollers
4. Vibratory Rollers
5. Vibroflotation
6. Dynamic Compaction
7. Blasting
FIELD COMPACTION
Relative Compaction.

for granular

soils;

Problem 27
Laboratory compaction test results for a
clayey silt are given in the following table:
Moisture Content, % Dry Unit Weight, kN/cu.m
6 14.80
8 17.45
9 18.52
11 18.90
12 18.50
14 16.90
Problem 27
Following are the results of a field unit weight
determination test performed on the same soil by
means of sand cone method.
• Calibrated dry density of Ottawa Sand = 1570
kg/cu.m
• Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone =
0.545 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (Before use) = 7.59 kg
• Mass of jar cone + sand (After use) = 4.78 kg
• Mass of moist soil from the hole = 3.007 kg
• Moisture content = 10%
Problem 27
Determine the following:
a. Dry unit weight of compaction in the field.

b. Relative compaction in the field.
CHAPTER 5
Soil Moisture
SOIL WATER.
Water present in the void spaces of a soil
mass.
SOIL MOISTURE.
Part of the subsurface water which occupies
the voids in the soil above the ground water
table.
FORM OF SOIL WATER
FREE WATER OR GRAVITATIONAL WATER.
Water in the excess of the moisture that can be
retained by the soil.
FREE SURFACE WATER (BULK WATER).

Moves at all times under the influence of
gravity, or because of the difference in
hydrostatic pressure head.
FORM OF SOIL WATER
FREE SURFACE WATER.

Water from precipitation, run-off, flood water,
melting snow, water from certain hydraulic
operation.
FORM OF SOIL WATER
FREE WATER OR GRAVITATIONAL
WATER.
Water in the excess of the moisture that can
be retained by the soil.
GROUND WATER.
Water which fills up the voids in the soil up
to the ground water table.
FORM OF SOIL WATER
CAPILLARY WATER.
Water which is in a suspended condition, held by
the forces of surface tension within the
interstices and pores of capillary size in the soil.
FORM OF SOIL WATER
HELD WATER.
Water which is held in soil pores or void
spaces because of certain forces of attraction.
STRUCTURAL WATER.
Water that is chemically combined as a part
of the crystal structure of the mineral of the
soil grains.
FORM OF SOIL WATER
HELD WATER.
Water which is held in soil pores or void spaces
because of certain forces of attraction.
ADSORBED WATER.
Hygroscopic moisture. Very thin films of moisture
around the mineral grains.
Film moisture. Attached to the surface of the soil
particle as a film upon the layer of the hygroscopic
moisture film.
PERMEABILITY
Significance:
1. The rate at which water flows through soil

(Determination of rate of leakage through
an earth dam).
2. Compression (Determination of the rate of
settlement of a foundation).
3. Strength (Evaluation of factors of safety of
an embankment).
REYNOLD’S NUMBER

DARCY’S LAW

DARCY’S LAW
DISCHARGE DARCY’S LAW

Coefficient of Permeability
Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic Gradient

Cross-Sectional Area
Perpendicular to the
Direction of Flow
DARCY’S LAW
CONTINUITY EQUATION
(Conservation Law)

Problem 28
The soil sample 70mm in diameter is placed in a
tube as shown below. A constant supply of water
is allowed to flow into one end of the soil. The
average amount of water collected is 23L for
every 20 minutes. Determine the following:
a. Flow rate.
b. Average velocity.
c. Seepage velocity if e=0.60.
d. Hydraulic conductivity.
Problem 28
DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY
LABORATORY TESTS:
1. Constant-Head Permeameter
2. Falling-Head Permeameter
3. Direct and Indirect Measurements
4. Horizontal Capillary Test
LABORATORY TESTS:
1. Constant-Head Permeameter

Problem 29
The discharge of water collected from a constant-
head permeameter in a period of 15 minutes is
500mL. The internal diameter of the permeameter
is 5cm and the measured difference in head
between two gauging points 15cm vertically apart
is 40 cm. The dry weight of the 15cm long sample
is 4.85 N and specific gravity is 2.67.
a. Calculate the coefficient of permeability.

b. Calculate the seepage velocity.
LABORATORY TESTS:
2. Falling-Head Permeameter

Problem 30
A glass cylinder 5 cm internal diameter and with
a screen at the bottom was used as a falling head
permeameter. The thickness of the sample was
10 cm. With the water level in the tube at the
start of the test as 50 cm above the tail water, it
dropped by 10 cm in one minute, the tail water
level remaining unchanged.
a. Calculate the value of k for the sample of the

soil.
Problem 31
In a falling head permeability test, head causing
flow was initially 50 cm and it drops 2 cm in 5
minutes.
a. How much time required for the head to fall to

25 cm?
b. How much time required for the head to fall by
5 cm?
Problem 32
A drainage pipe became completely blocked during a storm
drain and a plug of sand 1.5m long, followed by another
plug of mixture of clays, silts, and sands 0.5m long. When
the storm was over, the water level above the ground was
1m. The hydraulic conductivity of the sand is 2 times that of
the mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
a. Plot the variation of pore water pressure, elevation, and

total head over the length of the drain pipe.
b. Calculate the pore water pressure at the center of the
plug of sand and the center of the mixture.
c. Find the average hydraulic gradients in the sand and in
the mixture.
Problem 32
Problem 33

A permeable soil layer is underlain by an
impervious layer, as shown. With m/s for the
permeable layer. Calculate the rate of
seepage in cu.m/hr per meter width if H=3m
and
Problem 34

Find the flow rate per meter width through
the permeable soil layer shown. Given
H=8m, H1=3m, h=4m, S=50m, cm/s and
LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods
a.) ALLEN HAZEN EQUATION

For loose, clean, filter sands

LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods
b.) KOZENY-CARMAN EQUATION

k0 =factor depending on pore shape and ratio

of actual flow path to the thickness.
S=specific surface area

LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods
c.) SAMARASINGHE EQUATION

d.) CASAGRANDE EQUATION

LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods
e.) POISEUILLE’s EQUATION

c = shape factor
LABORATORY TESTS:
3. Indirect Methods
f.) MUSKAT EQUATION

= absolute/specific permeability

Problem 35
Estimate the coefficient of permeability for
uniform sand where a sieve analysis
indicates that the D10 size is 0.12mm.
Problem 36
Determine the order of magnitude of shape factor in the
Poiseulle’s equation adapted for flow of water through
uniform sands that have spherical grains and a void
ratio of 0.90, basing this determination on Hazen’s
approximate expression for permeability.
Problem 37
A cohesionless soil has a permeability of
0.036 cm/s at a void ratio of 0.36. Make
predictions of the permeability of this soil
when at a void ratio of 0.45 according to two
functions of void ratio that are proposed.
GROUNDWATER
Saturated Formation
AQUIFER
Is a permeable formation which allows a significant
quantity of water to move through it under field
conditions. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and
gravel form good aquifers.
AQUITARD
It is a formation through which only seepage is
possible and thus the yield is insignificant compared
to an aquifer. Sandy clay is an example.
GROUNDWATER
Saturated Formation
AQUICLUDE
It is a geological formation which is essentially
impermeable to the flow of water. Clay is an
example of aquiclude.
AQUIFUGE
It is a geological formation which is neither
porous nor permeable. Massive compact rock
without any fractures is an aquifuge.
AQUIFER
TYPES OF AQUIFER
UNCONFINED AQUIFER
One in which the ground water table is the upper surface
of the zone of saturation and it lies in the test stratum.
Also called ‘free’, ‘phreatic’, ‘non-artesian’ aquifer.
CONFINED AQUIFER
One in which ground water remains entrapped under
pressure greater that atmospheric pressure, by overlying
relatively impermeable strata. Also known as ‘artesian’
aquifer.
ASSUMPTIONS:
1. The aquifer is homogenous with uniform permeability
and is infinite areal extent.
2. The flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is valid.
3. The flow is horizontal and uniform at all points in the
vertical section.
4. The well penetrates the entire thickness of the
aquifer.
5. Natural groundwater regime affecting the aquifer
remains constant with time.
6. The velocity of flow is proportional to the tangent of
the hydraulic gradient
FIELD TESTS
Layout of a pump test
UNCONFINED AQUIFER

Problem 38
A pumping test was made in pervious gravel and sands
extending to a depth of 50 ft, where a bed of clay was
encountered. The normal ground water table was at the
ground surface. Observation wells are located at
distance of 10 ft and 25 ft from the pumping well. At a
discharge of 761 cu.ft/min from the pumping well, a
steady state was attained in about 24 hours. The
drawdown at distance 10 ft and 25 ft was 5.5 ft and 1.21
ft respectively. Determine the following:
a. Coefficient of permeability.
b. Transmissibility
Problem 39
An unconfined aquifer has a hydraulic conductivity
of 0.0020 cm/s and porosity of 0.27. The aquifer is in
a bed of sand with uniform thickness of 31 m, as
measured from the land surface. At well 1, the water
table is 21 m below the land surface. At well 2,
located some 175 m away, the water table is 23.5 m
from the surface. Determine the following:
a. Discharge per meter width in cu.m/day.
b. Average effective linear velocity at well 1.
c. Water table elevation midway between two wells.
FIELD TESTS
Layout of a pump test
CONFINED AQUIFER

Problem 40
A field pumping test was conducted from an
aquifer of sandy soil of 4m thickness confined
between two impervious strata. When equilibrium
was established, 90 liters of water was pumped out
per hour. The water elevation in an observation
well 3.0m away from the test well was 2.1m and
another 6.0m away was 2.7m from the roof level of
the impervious stratum of the aquifer. Determine
the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in m/sec.
EQUIVALENT PERMEABILITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL
PARALEL FLOW

EQUIVALENT PERMEABILITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL
NORMAL FLOW

Problem 41

A layered soil has the following properties:
cm/s
cm/s
cm/s
a. Estimate the ratio of equivalent hydraulic

conductivity,
Problem 42
A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown.
Assuming flow takes place laterally and vertically
through the sides of the canal and vertically below
the canal.
a. Determine the equivalent hydraulic conductivity
in the horizontal and vertical directions.
b. Calculate the ratio of the equivalent horizontal
hydraulic conductivity to the equivalent vertical
hydraulic conductivity.
Problem 42
FLOW NETS
FLOW NETS
FLOW NETS

Problem 43

A deposit of cohesionless soil with a
permeability of has a depth of 10 m with an
impervious ledge below. A sheet pile wall is
driven into this deposit to a depth of 7.5 m.
The wall extends above the surface of the
soil and a 2.5 m depth of water acts on one
side. Determine the seepage quantity per
meter length of the wall.
Problem 43
Problem 44
For the completed flow net of a dam shown in the
figure,
Problem 44

Assuming .
a. Determine the rate of seepage per meter

length of the dam.
b. Calculate the total head at points A, B, C,
D, E and F.
c. Calculate the pressure head at points A,
B, C, D, E and F.
CHAPTER 6
Subsurface Stresses
Geostatic
Stress
Stress due to the self-weight of the soil layers.
TOTAL STRESS
Stress due to either self-weight of the soil or due to external
applied forces or due to both.
NEUTRAL STRESS / PORE WATER PRESSURE

Stress carried by the pore water.
EFFECTIVE STRESS
Intergranular pressure, the difference between the total stress
and neutral stress.
Problem 45
Given the soil profile as shown in the Figure.
a. Plot the total, neutral and effective

stresses with depth for the entire soil
profile.
b. Plot the total, neutral and effective

stresses with depth if the ground water
table rises to the ground surface.
Capillary Rise in
Soil
CAPILLARY RISE
The phenomenon in which water rises above the ground water
table against the pull of gravity, but is in contact with the
ground water table as its source.
CAPILLARY MOISTURE
The water associated with capillary rise.
CAPILLARITY
The phenomenon by virtue of which a liquid rises in capillary
tubes, in general.
Problem 46
A layer of silty soil of thickness 5m lies
below the ground surface at a particular
site and below the silt layer lies clay
stratum shown in the figure. The
groundwater table is at a depth of 4m
below the ground surface. Plot the stress
diagram and determine the effective
stress at points A, B, C, D and E
Effects of Flow on Stresses
Through Soil
When water flows through soils, it
exerts forces called seepage forces on
the individual soil grains. Seepage
forces affect the intergranular or
effective stresses in the soil mass.
A. NO FLOW
A. DOWNWARD SEEPAGE
A. UPWARD SEEPAGE
Problem 47
The figure shows a layer of granular soil in a tank.
The rate of water supply is kept constant.
Evaluate and analyze stresses for the following
conditions:
a. No flow.
b. Downward seepage if head loss is 2.5m.
c. Upward seepage if head loss is 2.5m.
d. Critical hydraulic gradient.
e. Seepage force.
0.5m
1.9m
3
1.1m γsat= 20 kN/m
Relationship between
horizontal and vertical
stresses.
σH = KσV
K earth pressure
coefficient
Relationship between
horizontal and vertical
stresses.
σ’H = Ko σ’
V
coefficient of lateral
Ko earth pressure at rest
Problem 48
For each of the stressed soil elements
shown, determine the following:
a. Major principal stress.

b. Minor principal stress.
c. Maximum shearing stress.
d. Normal stress on plane AB.
e. Shear stress on plane AB.
Soil Element 1 Soil Element 2
Stress Distribution.
A. POINT LOAD

0.00 0.47746 2.50 0.00337 5.00 0.00014
0.25 0.41032 2.75 0.00223 5.25 0.00011
0.50 0.27332 3.00 0.00151 5.50 0.00009
0.75 0.15645 3.25 0.00105 5.75 0.00007
1.00 0.08440 3.50 0.00075 6.00 0.00006
1.25 0.04543 3.75 0.00054 6.25 0.00005
1.50 0.02508 4.00 0.00040 6.50 0.00004
1.75 0.01436 4.25 0.00030 6.75 0.00003
2.00 0.00854 4.50 0.00023 7.00 0.00003
2.25 0.00528 4.75 0.00018 7.25 0.00002

Soil Type Poisson’s Ratio
Loose Sand 0.20 – 0.40
Medium Sand 0.25 – 0.40
Dense Sand 0.30 – 0.45
Silty Sand 0.20 – 0.40
Soft Clay 0.15 – 0.25
Medium Clay 0.20 – 0.50
Soil / Rock Type Poisson’s Ratio
Loose Sand, Drained 0.10 – 0.30
Dense Sand, Drained 0.30 – 0.40
Saturated Clay, Undrained 0.50
Partially Saturated Clay 0.30 – 0.40
Sand Stone 0.25 – 0.30
Granite 0.23 – 0.27
Problem 49

A concentrated load of 1,500 kN is applied at the
ground surface at point A whose coordinate is
(0,0,0). If the unit weight of the soil is ,
determine the following:
a. Vertical stress at point B, 2.5m directly below

point A caused by 1,500 kN load.
b. At point C, whose coordinate is (1.5, 0, 2.5).
c. Total vertical stress at point D, whose
coordinate is (1.5, 2, 2.5).
B. LINE LOAD (Infinite Length)

Problem 50
A line load and a point load acting on

the ground surface is shown in the
figure. Determine the increase in vertical
stress at point A.
Problem 50
C. LINE LOAD (Finite Length)

Problem 51

A 5.6-m length line load is subjected on the
ground surface with a magnitude of as
shown in the figure. Determine the vertical
stress due to the load on points A, B, and C.
Problem 51
D. FLEXIBLE STRIP LOAD
(Finite Width and Infinite Length)

Or can be simplified as;

Problem 52

A homogenous soil is being loaded on its
surface by a 4-m width infinite length strip
with a magnitude of. Determine the vertical
stress due to the loading at point A located
at;
a.
b.
E. LINEARLY INCREASING LOADING ON AN
INFINITE STRIP

Problem 53

Refer to the figure. For a linearly
increasing vertical loading on an infinite
strip has a magnitude of , determine the
vertical stress at point A.
Problem 53
F. CIRCULAR LOAD
BOUSSINESQ’S EQUATION
(below the center of the circular area)

F. CIRCULAR LOAD
AHLVIN and ULERY
(any point below the circular area)

F. CIRCULAR DETERMINATION OF A’
LOAD
F. CIRCULAR DETERMINATION OF B’
LOAD
G. RECTANGULARLY LOADED AREA
NEWMARK’S EQUATION
1



Problem 55

A rectangular concrete slab, and in dimension,
rests on the surface of the soil mass. The load
exerted by the rectangular concrete has a
magnitude of Determine the vertical stress
located
a. At point A, 3.7m directly below (0, 0, 0).

b. At point B, whose coordinates (1, 2.2, 4).
c. At point C, whose coordinates (4, 2, 3).
Problem 53
G. RECTANGULARLY LOADED AREA
2 : 1 METHOD
(approximate method)

Problem 56
Referring to Problem 55, determine the
approximate value of vertical stress acting;
a. At point A, 3.7m directly below (0, 0, 0).

b. At point B, whose coordinates (1, 2.2, 4).
c. At point C, whose coordinates (4, 2, 3).
FOUNDATION
ENGINEERING
Prepared by:
Engr. Mark Joseph T. Bugarin
CHAPTER 7
CONSOLIDATION
ELASTIC MATERIALS – the stresses and
strains occur simultaneously. This has the
simplest type of stress-strain relationship
(linear or nonlinear)
VISCO-ELASTIC – materials which have

time as factor in their stress-strain
response.
COMPONENTS OF SETTLEMENT
SETTLEMENT – the total vertical
deformation at the surface resulting from
the load.
Three components of settlement
Immediate, or distortion, settlement – usually

estimated by elastic theory. This must be
considered in the design of shallow foundation.
Consolidation settlement – occurs in saturate

fine-grained soils which have a low coefficient of
permeability. The rate depends on the rate of pore
water pressure.
Secondary settlement – occurs at constant

effective stress and with no subsequent changes in
pore water pressure.
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL
COMPRESSIBILITY – is used to indicate
one-dimensional volume change that
occur in a soil deposit when compressive
loading is applied and the particles
rearrange as a reaction
1. Deformation of soil grains.
2. Compression of air and water in the voids.
3. Squeezing out of water and air from the voids.
CONSOLIDATION – when clays undergo
loading, because of their relatively low
permeability their compression is
controlled by the rate at which the water is
squeezed out of the pores.
1. Expulsion of water.
2. Fully saturated soil.
3. Applies to cohesive soils only
4. Brought about by application of load or by natural

agencies.
5. Static loading is commonly applied.
6. Improves bearing power and settlement
characteristics.
7. Relatively slow process.
8. Relatively simple phenomenon.
9. Useful as a means of improving the properties of
foundation soil.
ONE – DIMENSIONAL LABORATORY
CONSOLIDATION TEST
To simulate one – dimensional compression
in the laboratory, we compress the soil in a
special device called an oedometer and
consolidometer.
This evaluates the compression

characteristics of an undisturbed
representative sample, we can predict the
settlement of the soil layer in the field.
Time-compression curve for a stress increment on
Pressure – void ratio
Pressure – void ratio
Pressure – Void Ratio Relationship
CLAY
SAND

Preconsolidation Pressure, – maximum
vertical overburden stress that the sample
has sustained.
Virgin Compression Curve – part after
break. The soil has never before
experienced a stress greater than the
preconsolidation stress.
Reconsolidation Curve – part before
break.
Mechanisms Causing Preconsolidation
Change in total stress due to:
 Removal of overburden
 Past structures
 Glaciation
Change in pore water pressure due to:

 Change in water table elevation
 Artesian pressures
 Deep pumping; flow into tunnels
 Desiccation due to surface drying
 Desiccation due to plant life.
Mechanisms Causing Preconsolidation
Change in soil structure due to:
 Secondary compression (aging)
Environmental changes such as pH,

temperature, and salt concentration.
Chemical alterations due to weathering,

precipitation, cementing agents, ion exchange.
Change on strain rate on loading.

Overconsolidation Ratio, OCR
ratio of the preconsolidation stress to the
existing vertical effective overburden stress.

Normal consolidation:
Overconsolidation:
Underconsolidation :
Casagrande Construction
Determination of the preconsolidation pressure
Step 1.
Locate the
maximum
curvature, M.
Step 2.
Draw a line, MT,
tangent to the curve
through M.
Step 3.
Draw a horizontal
line, MS, through M.
Step 4.
Draw an angle
bisector, MB,
through M.
Step 5.
The straight portion
DC, of the graph is
extended backward
to intersect MB at
E.
Step 6.
The pressure corresponding
to point E is the
preconsolidation pressure.
Problem F1

The result of laboratory consolidation test is
shown.
a. Plot the .
b. Preconsolidation stress using Casagrande
procedure.
c. Minimum and maximum values of this stress.
d. OCR if the in-situ effective overburden stress
is 80 kPa.
Pressure () Void ratio Remarks
25 0.93
50
50 0.92
0.92
100
100 0.88
0.88
200 0.81 Loading
200 0.81 Loading
400 0.69
400 0.69
800 0.61
800 0.61
1600 0.52
1600
800 0.52
0.535
800
400 0.535
0.555 Unloading
400
200 0.555
0.57 Unloading
200 0.57
void ratio
pressure
void ratio
pressure
void ratio
pressure
SETTLEMENT CALCULATIONS

BASIC SETTLEMENT,

Problem F2
Prior to placement of a fill covering a
large area at a site, the thickness of a
compressible soil layer was 10 m. Its
original in situ void ratio was 1.06. Some
time after the fill was constructed,
measurements indicated that the average
void ratio was 0.93. Estimate the
settlement of the soil layer.

Coefficient of Compressibility, - slope of
compression curve, when the results are
plotted arithmetically. (for small pressure
range)

Coefficient of Volume Change, - slope of
compression curve from arithmetic plotting of
percent consolidation or strain against
pressures.

vertical compression or strain

constrained or oedometric modulus

Compression Index, - slope of the virgin
compression curve, when the results are
plotted in semi-log graph.

Problem F3

In a consolidation test the following results
have been obtained. When the load was
changed from to , the void ration changed
from 0.70 to 0.65. Determine the following:
a. Coefficient of compressibility.
b. Modulus of volume change.
c. Compression index.
Problem F4

A sand fill compacted to a bulk density of
and a height of 3m is to be placed on a
compressible saturated marsh deposit 3.5
m thick. If the volume compressibility
(modulus of volume change) of the deposit
is , estimate the settlement of the fill.

Modified Compression Index
(Compression Ratio), - slope of the virgin
compression curve, when the percent
consolidation / strain and pressures are
plotted in semi-log graph.

CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT,
(PRIMARY SETTLEMENT)

For normally consolidated soil,
(existing vertical overburden stress)
and additional stress

Compression index,
Skempton (for remolded clay)

Terzaghi and Peck (for undisturbed clay)

Azzouz et al (86% reliable)

For organic soil

Compression index,
Hough (based on precompressed soil)

Rendon-Herrero (natural clays)

Nishida (for all clays)

CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT,
(PRIMARY SETTLEMENT)

For normally consolidated soil,

Problem F5

A layer of soft clay with initial void ration
of 1.06 is 6m thick and lies under a newly
constructed building. The weight of the
sand overlying the clayey layer produces
a pressure of and the new construction
increases the pressure by . If the
compression index is 0.50. Compute the
settlement.
Problem F6

A stratum of normally consolidated clay 7m thick is
located at a depth 12m below the ground level. The
natural moisture content of the clay is 40.5% and LL
is 48% and Gs is 2.76. The water table is located at
a depth 5m below the ground surface. The sand
above the clay layer has a submerged unit weight of
and dry unit weight of . The average increase in
pressure at the center of the clay stratum is due to
the weight of the building that will be constructed.
Estimate the expected settlement.

When

recompression index (average slope of recompression
part of the vs or swell index,
modified recompression index (average slope of
recompression part of the vs or recompression ratio

When

Problem F6

Refer to the soil profile shown. If a uniformly
distributed load is applied at the ground surface,
what is the settlement of the clay layer caused
by primary consolidation if:
a. The clay is normally consolidated.

b. The preconsolidation pressure is
c. The preconsolidation pressure is
Assume .
TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION

- secondary compression index

SECONDARY SETTLEMENT,

SECONDARY SETTLEMENT,

- secondary compression index

CHAPTER 8
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
SHEAR STRENGTH OF A SOIL MASS – is
the internal resistance per unit of area that
the soil mass can offer to resist failure and
sliding along any plane inside.
The shear strength of soil may be
attributed to three (3) basic
components.
1. Frictional resistance to sliding between
solid particles.
2. Cohesion and adhesion between
particles.
3. Interlocking and bridging of solid
particles to resist deformation.
MOHR – COULOMB FAILURE CRITERIA
(1900) Mohr presented a theory for rupture in
materials. This theory contended that a
material fails because of a critical
combination of normal stress and shear
stress, and not from either maximum normal

or shear stress alone.

c – cohesion
– angle of internal friction

c' – cohesion
- effective stress
– drained angle of internal friction
Mohr’s failure envelope
Mohr – Coulomb failure criteria

INCINATION OF THE PLANE OF
FAILURE CAUSED BY SHEAR

LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF
SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS
1. Direct shear test.

2. Triaxial test.
3. Direct simple shear test.
4. Plane strain triaxial test.
5. Torsional ring shear test.
DIRECT SHEAR

The following generalization can be made
regarding the variation of resisting shear
stress with shear displacement.
1. In loose sand, the resisting shear stress

increases with shear displacement until
a failure shear stress, is reached. After
that, the shear resistance remains
approximately constant with any
further increase in the shear
displacement.
2. In dense sand, the resisting shear stress
increases with shear displacement until it
reaches afa

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Geotech Lec

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SOIL MECHANICS

A. Define/Explain/Illustrate the following

6. Geotechnical Engineering After 1927

a) Dry unit weight.

The ratio of the volume of the excavated material

For a given sand, the maximum and minimum

1. Percentage retained on any sieve,

2. Cumulative percentage retained on

A sample of a dry coarse-grained material of

10 14.8 2.962 2.962 97.038

20 98 19.612 22.574 77.426

40 90.1 18.031 40.605 59.395

100 181.9 36.402 77.007 22.993

200 108.8 21.773 98.780 1.220

Pan 6.1 1.221 100.001 0.001

Soil classification is used to specify a certain soil

SAND 2.0mm to 0.05mm diameter

SILT 0.05mm to 0.002mm diameter

CLAY smaller than 0.002mm diameter

Sand 18 15.190 22.222

Silt 24 44.304 45.556

Clay 58 40.506 32.222

0.001 0.005 0.075 0.425 2.0 75

Group Index (GI)

Test results of particle size distribution of

4 4.75 94 100 100

0.075 0.425 2.0 4.75 19 75 300

The table shows the laboratory results of the

“Soil Consistency” refers to the strength with

LD1. Casagrande Apparatus.

One Point Method.

LD1. Casagrande Apparatus.

Water Content, % 52.5 47.1 42.3 38.6 37.5

a. Determine the Liquid Limit of the sample.

LD2. Fall Cone Penetrometer.

LIQUID LIMIT corresponds to the

LD2. Fall Cone Penetrometer.

LD1. Plastic limit is defined as the moisture

LD2. Using cone penetrometer (fall cone method)

a. Determine the Liquid Limit.

Water Content, % 42.5 47.5 58.1 60

For 240-g cone

Water Content, % 21.2 38.2 46.1 51.9

LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated from

LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated from

LD1. Shrinkage limit can be calculated using the

Initial volume of the soil in saturated state = 24.6 cc

a. Determine the Shrinkage Limit.

Mass of shrinkage dish= 17.50g

a. Determine the Shrinkage Limit.

where μ is the percentage of clay sizes, i.e.

Weight of container and wet soil, g 22.24 21.19 21.27 26.12

Weight of container and dry soil, g 19.44 18.78 18.75 22.10

Weight of container, g 12.74 13.24 13.06 13.27

Weight of container and wet soil, g 22.12 21.84

Weight of container and dry soil, g 20.42 20.19

Weight of container, g 13.07 13.18

Weight of the empty pycnometer = 7.50N

Determine the specific gravity of the soil solids,