Classification of Heat Engines

 Internal Combustion Engines (I C Engine)

 Petrol Engine , Diesel Engine
 External Combustion Engines (E C Engine)
 Turbines – Steam & Gas Turbines
 Heat Engines
 Is a device that converts heat energy into
mechanical work.
 Heat energy is obtained by the combustion
of fuel.
 Powered by the expansion of heated
gases.
 How the heat engines are classified?
 Classification of I .C. Engines
1. No. of Strokes
 Two stroke engine
 Four stroke engine
2. Fuel used
 Petrol or Gasoline engine
 Diesel engine
 Gas engine

3. Working cycle
 Ottocycle
 Diesel cycle

4. No. of cylinders
 Single cylinder engine
 Multi cylinder engine
 Classification of I .C. Engines
5. Engine design
 Vertical engine
 Horizontal engine
 V engine
 Radial engine
6.Method of Ignition
 Spark Ignition
 Compression Ignition
7. Speed
 Low speed
 High speed
 Medium speed
8. Cooling system
 Air cooled engine
 Water cooled engine
 Classification of I .C. Engines
9. Valve location
 Over head valve engine
 Side valve engine

10. Lubrication
 Wet pump lubrication
 Dry pump lubrication

11.Application
 Stationary engine
 Marine engine
 Locomotive engine
 Automotive engine
 Aircraft engine
 Applications of I .C. Engines
 Motorcycles
 Mopeds
 Scooters
 Model airplanes
 Buses
 Trucks
 Boats
 I.C.Engine terminology
 Bore
 TDC ( Top Dead Centre )
 BDC ( Top Dead Centre )
 Stroke
 Compression ratio
Max. cylinder volume
Clearance volume

 Cylinder volume
 Swept volume + clearance volume

 Swept volume
 Clearance volume
I.C.Engine terminology
 Major parts
• Cylinder
• Cylinder head
• Piston
• Piston rings
• Connecting rod
• Crankshaft
• Cam shaft
• Crank case
• Flywheel
• Valves
• Water jackets
 Moving Components
• Piston
– Acted on by combustion gases
– Lightweight but strong/durable
• Piston Rings
– Transfer heat from piston to
cylinder
– Seal cylinder & distribute lube
oil
• Piston Pin
– Pivot point connecting piston to
connecting rod
• Connecting Rod
– Connects piston & crankshaft
– reciprocating rotating
motion
 Moving Components
• Crankshaft
– Combines work done by each piston
– Drives camshafts, generator, pumps, etc.
• Flywheel
– Absorbs and releases kinetic energy of
piston strokes -> smoothes rotation of
crankshaft
 Moving Components
• Valves
– Intake: open to admit air
to cylinder (with fuel in
Otto cycle)
– Exhaust: open to allow
gases to be rejected
• Camshaft & Cams
– Used to time the addition
of intake and exhaust
valves
– Operates valves via
pushrods & rocker arms
CLASSIFICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

Basic Engine Design:

1. Reciprocating (a) Single Cylinder
(b) Multi-cylinder (I) In-line
(ii) V
(iii) Radial
(iv) Opposed
Cylinder
(v) Opposed
Piston
2. Rotary: (a) Single Rotor
(b) Multi-rotor
Two stroke Petrol Engine
Two stroke Petrol Engine
Two stroke Petrol Engine
Two stroke Petrol Engine
Two stroke Petrol Engine
 Two-Stroke Diesel Engine
• Compression
– Intake and exhaust Ports shut
– Piston travels from BDC to TDC
– Temperature and pressure of air increase
• Power stroke
– Intake and exhaust Ports shut
– Fuel injected into cylinder and ignites
– Piston forced from TDC to BDC
 Advantages of 2 Stroke Engines:
- Two-stroke engines do not have valves,
simplifying their construction.
- Two-stroke engines fire once every revolution
(four-stroke engines fire once every other
revolution). This gives two-stroke engines a
significant power boost.
- Two-stroke engines are lighter, and cost less
to manufacture.
- Two-stroke engines have the potential for
about twice the power in the same size
because there are twice as many power
strokes per revolution.
Disadvantages of 2 Stroke Engines:
- Two-stroke engines don't live as long as four-stroke
engines. The lack of a dedicated lubrication system
means that the parts of a two-stroke engine wear-out
faster. Two-stroke engines require a mix of oil in with
the gas to lubricate the crankshaft, connecting rod
and cylinder walls.
- Two-stroke oil can be expensive. Mixing ratio is about
4 ounces per gallon of gas: burning about a gallon of
oil every 1,000 miles.
- Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently,
yielding fewer miles per gallon.
- Two-stroke engines produce more pollution
Four stroke Petrol Engine
Four stroke Petrol Engine
 Working of 4 stroke Petrol Engine
• Intake: Piston travels down the cylinder while the
intake valve is opened to allow a mixture of fuel and
air to enter the combustion chamber.
• Compression: The intake valve is closed and the
piston travels back up the cylinder thereby
compressing the gasses.
• Combustion: Spark plug ignites the compressed gas
causing it to explode, which forces the piston down.
• Exhaust: The piston rises up the cylinder as the
exhaust valve is opened, allowing the piston to clear
the chamber to start the process over.
• Each time the piston rises and falls it turns the
crankshaft that is responsible for turning the
wheels. This is how fuel is converted into forward
motion.
 Advantages of 4 Stroke Engines:
- Fuel Economy
- More Torque
- More Durability
- Cleaner Emissions
- Smooth in operation
Disadvantages of 4 Stroke Engines
• More complex and harder to troubleshoot
• Require oil to be changed regularly
• More expensive than 2 stroke
Two-Stroke Diesel Engine
 Two-Stroke Diesel Engine
• COMPRESSION STROKE
As the piston moves towards top dead
center, it covers the intake ports. The
exhaust valves close at this point and
seals the upper cylinder.
As the piston continues upward, the air in
the cylinder is tightly compressed and
a tremendous amount of heat is
generated by the compression.
 Two-Stroke Diesel Engine
POWER STROKE
As the piston reaches top
dead center, the compression stroke ends.
Fuel is
injected at this point and the intense heat
of the compression causes the fuel to ignite.
The burning fuel pushes the piston down, giving
power to the crankshaft.
The power stroke ends when the piston gets
down to the point where the intake ports are
uncovered. At about this point, the exhaust
valve opens and scavenging begins again.
Four-Stroke Diesel Engine
Four-Stroke Diesel Engine
 Four-Stroke Diesel Engine
• Intake stroke
– Intake valve open, exhaust valve shut
– Piston travels from TDC to BDC
– Air drawn in
• Compression stroke
– Intake and exhaust valves shut
– Piston travels from BDC to TDC
– Temperature and pressure of air increase
 Four-Stroke Diesel Engine
• Power stroke
– Intake and exhaust valves shut
– Fuel injected into cylinder and ignites
– Piston forced from TDC to BDC
• Exhaust stroke
– Intake valve shut, exhaust valve open
– Piston moves from BDC to TDC
– Combustion gases expelled
 Four-Stroke Diesel Engine

• Strokes
– Intake
– Compression

– Power
– Exhaust
Difference between 2 stroke & 4 stroke
Four Stroke Two Stroke
One power stroke in two One power stroke in one
revolutions of crankshaft revolution of crankshaft
Valves are provided Ports are provided
Engine is cooled by Engine is cooled by air
water
More space is required Less space is required
More Thermal efficiency Less Thermal efficiency
Less fuel consumption More fuel consumption
Requires more lubrication Not essential
Heavier engine Lighter engine
 Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
Operates on the principle of Operates on the principle of
Otto cycle Diesel cycle
Fuel is ignited by spark plug Fuel is ignited by hot
compressed air
Low compression ratio High compression ratio
Operates at high speed Operates at low speed
Fuel used is petrol Fuel used is Diesel
Lighter in weight Heavier in weight
Fuel is sent through Fuel is sent through fuel
carburetor injector
Fuel consumption is more Less fuel consumption
Less vibration More vibration
Petrol is highly volatile. So Diesel is less volatile. So
handling is more risk handling is not risky
 Types of CI Engines

Glow plug

Orifice
-plate

Direct injection: Direct injection:

quiescent chamber swirl in chamber Indirect injection: turbulent
and swirl pre-chamber 38
Direct Injection Direct Injection Direct Injection Indirect injection
quiescent chamber multi-hole nozzle single-hole nozzle swirl pre-chamber
swirl in chamber swirl in chamber
39
Property Gasoline Diesel Methan Ethanol Natural Propane DME RME Hydrogen
ol gas

Mol.wt. ≈110 ≈195 32.04 46.07 ≈18.7 44.10 46.1 ≈ 300 2.015

0.72- 0.82- 0.51 0.67

Specific
0.78 0.88 0.796 0.794 0.72 liquefie liquid 0.882 0.090
gravity
d

LHV,
44.0 42.5 19.9 26.8 50.0 46.3 28.4 37.7 120
MJ/kg

Heat of 410
vaporizati 305 250 1110 904 509 426 at 20º
on ,kJ/kg C

Boiling
30-215 180- 65 78 -160 -43 -24.9 330- -253
point, ºC 370 340
Property Gasoli Diesel Methan Ethanol Natural Propane DME RME Hydrogen
ne ol gas

90-98 120-
RON - 112 111 130 112 - -
(MON) (80- (120- 106
90) (91) (92) 130) (97)

Cetane - 45-55 - - - - >55 51-52 -

number

Stoichio
metric A/
F ratio,
mass
14.7 15.0 6.43 8.94 17.12 15.58 9.0 11.2 34.13
Lower heating value and Higher
heating value
• The lower heating value (also known as net calorific value) of a fuel
is defined as the amount of heat released by combusting a specified
quantity (initially at 25°C) and returning the temperature of the
combustion products to 150°C, which assumes the latent heat of
vaporization of water in the reaction products is not recovered.

• The higher heating value (also known gross calorific value or gross
energy) of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat released by a
specified quantity (initially at 25°C) once it is combusted and the
products have returned to a temperature of 25°C, which takes into
account the latent heat of vaporization of water in the combustion
products.
 Heat of Vaporization
The enthalpy of vaporization also known as
the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of
evaporation, is the amount of energy
(enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid
substance, to transform a quantity of that
substance into a gas. The enthalpy of
vaporization is a function of the pressure at
which that transformation takes place.
• Octane number is a value used to indicate
the resistance of a motor fuel to knock.
Octane numbers are based on a scale on
which isoocatane is 100 (minimal knock)
and heptane is 0 (bad knock).

Also Known As: Octane Rating

Example: A gasoline with an octane

number of 92 has the same knock as a
mixture of 92% isooctane and 8%
heptane.
 Fuel Ignition Quality

The ignition characteristics of the fuel affect the ignition delay.

The ignition quality of a fuel is defined by its cetane number CN.

For low cetane fuels the ignition delay is long and most of the fuel is injected
before autoignition and rapidly burns, under extreme cases this produces an
audible knocking sound referred to as “diesel knock”.

For high cetane fuels the ignition delay is short and very little fuel is injected
before autoignition, the heat release rate is controlled by the rate of fuel
injection and fuel-air mixing – smoother engine operation.

45
 Cetane Number

The method used to determine the ignition quality in terms of CN is analogous

to that used for determining the antiknock quality using the ON.

The cetane number scale is defined by blends of two pure hydrocarbon

reference fuels.

By definition, isocetane (heptamethylnonane, HMN) has a cetane number of

15 and cetane (n-hexadecane, C16H34) has a value of 100.

In the original procedures a-methylnaphtalene (C11H10) with a cetane number

of zero represented the bottom of the scale. This has since been replaced by
HMN which is a more stable compound.

The higher the CN the better the ignition quality, i.e., shorter ignition delay.

The cetane number is given by:

CN = (% hexadecane) + 0.15 (% HMN)

46
 Properties of Hydrogen

The properties that contribute to its use as a combustible fuel are its:
• wide range of flammability
• low ignition energy
• small quenching distance
• high auto ignition temperature
• high flame speed at stoichiometric ratios
• high diffusivity
• very low density
Brake Thermal Efficiency
Nox Emission
CO Emission
HC Emission
Combustion characteristics of hydrogen and its impact
on emissions are given below;

• Hydrogen octane rating is 106 RON making it more suitable for spark-ignited engines.
• The laminar flame speed of hydrogen is 3 m/s, about 10 times that of gasoline and
methane.
• Hydrogen has very wide flammability limits ranging from 5 to 75% by volume (f = 0.07
to 9), which may lead to pre-ignition and backfiring problems.
• If inducted along with intake air, the volume of hydrogen is nearly 30% of the
stoichiometric mixture decreasing maximum engine power.
• Hydrogen on combustion produces water and there are no emissions of carbon
containing pollutants such as HC, CO and CO2 and air toxics.
• Trace amounts of HC, CO and CO2 however, may be emitted as a result of
combustion of lubricating oil leaking into engine cylinder.
• NOx is the only pollutant of concern from hydrogen engines. Very low NOx emissions
can be obtained with extremely lean engine operation (f < 0.05) and/or injection of
water into intake manifold or exhaust gas recirculation which in this case consists
primarily of water vapours.
 Liquid H2 Hydride Fe-Ti Compressed
Gasoline (1.2%) H2 (70MPa)

Energy (LHV) 600 600 600 600

stored, MJ

14 5 5 5
Fuel mass, kg

Tank mass, kg 6.5 19 550 85

Total Fuel 20.5 24 555 90

System mass,
kg
Volume, Litres
19 178 190 227
1.Hydrogen cylinder
2.Air flow
3.Power control unit
4.Battery
5.Motor
6.Fuel Cell
Mixture Preparation in Carburetor
A Typical Port Injection
system
 Single point and Multi point
Injection

Single point or Throttle body Injection Multipoint Injection

 Single point Injection

Idle air control valve

Injector

Inlet Plenum TB

Butterfly Air flow in

Throttle position sensor

Cylinder head
 Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)

Controller
Air in
SP Exhaust
gas out

Throttle Injector
Comparison between PFI and GDI
Property Gasoline Diesel Methan Ethanol Natural Propane DME RME Hydrogen
ol gas

Mol.wt. ≈110 ≈195 32.04 46.07 ≈18.7 44.10 46.1 ≈ 300 2.015

0.72- 0.82- 0.51 0.67

Specific
0.78 0.88 0.796 0.794 0.72 liquefie liquid 0.882 0.090
gravity
d

LHV,
44.0 42.5 19.9 26.8 50.0 46.3 28.4 37.7 120
MJ/kg

Heat of 410
vaporizati 305 250 1110 904 509 426 at 20º
on ,kJ/kg C

Boiling
30-215 180- 65 78 -160 -43 -24.9 330- -253
point, ºC 370 340
Property Gasoli Diesel Methan Ethanol Natural Propane DME RME Hydrogen
ne ol gas

90-98 120-
RON - 112 111 130 112 - -
(MON) (80- (120- 106
90) (91) (92) 130) (97)

Cetane - 45-55 - - - - >55 51-52 -

number

Stoichio
metric A/
F ratio,
mass
14.7 15.0 6.43 8.94 17.12 15.58 9.0 11.2 34.13
 Properties of Hydrogen

The properties that contribute to its use as a combustible fuel are its:
• wide range of flammability
• low ignition energy
• small quenching distance
• high auto ignition temperature
• high flame speed at stoichiometric ratios
• high diffusivity
• very low density
Brake Thermal Efficiency
Nox Emission
CO Emission
HC Emission
Combustion characteristics of hydrogen and its impact
on emissions are given below;

• Hydrogen octane rating is 106 RON making it more suitable for spark-ignited engines.
• The laminar flame speed of hydrogen is 3 m/s, about 10 times that of gasoline and
methane.
• Hydrogen has very wide flammability limits ranging from 5 to 75% by volume (f = 0.07
to 9), which may lead to pre-ignition and backfiring problems.
• If inducted along with intake air, the volume of hydrogen is nearly 30% of the
stoichiometric mixture decreasing maximum engine power.
• Hydrogen on combustion produces water and there are no emissions of carbon
containing pollutants such as HC, CO and CO2 and air toxics.
• Trace amounts of HC, CO and CO2 however, may be emitted as a result of
combustion of lubricating oil leaking into engine cylinder.
• NOx is the only pollutant of concern from hydrogen engines. Very low NOx emissions
can be obtained with extremely lean engine operation (f < 0.05) and/or injection of
water into intake manifold or exhaust gas recirculation which in this case consists
primarily of water vapours.
 Liquid H2 Hydride Fe-Ti Compressed
Gasoline (1.2%) H2 (70MPa)

Energy (LHV) 600 600 600 600

stored, MJ

14 5 5 5
Fuel mass, kg

Tank mass, kg 6.5 19 550 85

Total Fuel 20.5 24 555 90

System mass,
kg
Volume, Litres
19 178 190 227
1.Hydrogen cylinder
2.Air flow
3.Power control unit
4.Battery
5.Motor
6.Fuel Cell