 Runoff means the draining or flowing off of

precipitation from a catchment area through

a surface channel.
 It thus represents the output from the
catchment in a given unit of time.
 Consider a catchment area receiving
precipitation. For given precipitation,
evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration
and detention-storage requirements will have
to be first satisfied before the
commencement of runoff.
 When these requirements are satisfied, the
excess precipitation moves over the land to
reach the channels. This portion of the runoff
is called overland flow.
 The overflow is involved in building up of a
storage over the surface and draining off of
the same.
 Usually the lengths and depths of overland
flow are small and the flow is in the laminar
regime.
 The flow in the mode where it travels all the
time over the surface as overland flow and
through the channels as open-channel flow
and reaches the catchment outlet is called
surface-runoff.
 A part of the precipitation that infiltrates
moves laterally through upper crusts of the
soil and returns to the surface at some
location away from the point of entry into the
soil.
 This component of runoff is known variously
as interflow, through flow, storm interflow or
quick return flow.
 Based upon the time delay between the
precipitation and the runoff, the runoff is
classified into two categories, as
 1. Direct Runoff
 2. Base Flow
 It is that part of runoff which enters the
stream immediately after the precipitation.
 It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow
and precipitation on the channel surface.
 In the case of snow-melt, the resulting flow
entering the stream is also a direct runoff.
 Sometimes terms such as direct storm runoff
and storm runoff are used to designate direct
runoff.
 The delayed flow that reaches a stream
essentially as ground water flow is called base
flow.
 Many times delayed interflow is also included
under this category.
 True runoff is therefore, stream flow in
natural condition, i.e. without human
intervention.
 Such a stream flow unaffected by works of
man, such as structures for storage and
diversion on a stream is called virgin flow.
 A study of the annual hydrographs of streams
enables one to classify streams into three
classes
 i) Perennial
 ii) Intermittent and
 iii) Ephemeral
 A perennial stream is
one which always
carries some flow.
 There is considerable
amount of ground
water flow
throughout the year.
 Even during the dry
season the water
table will be above
the bed of the
stream.
 An intermittent stream is one that has
limited contribution from the ground
water.
 During the wet season the water table is
above the stream bed and there is a
contribution of the base flow to the
stream flow.
 However, during dry seasons the water
table drops to a lower level than that of
the stream bed and stream dries up.
 Excepting for an occasional storm which
can produce short-duration flow, the
stream remains dry for the most part of
the dry months.
 An ephemeral stream is one
which does not have any
base-flow contribution.
 The annual hydrograph of
such a river show series of
short duration spikes
making flash flows from in
response to storms.
 The stream becomes dry
soon after the end of the
storm flow.
 Typically an ephemeral
stream does not have any
well defined channel.
 The total quantity of water that can be
expected from a stream in a given period
such as a year is called yield of the river.
 It is usual for the yield to be referred to the
period of a year and then it represents the
annual runoff volume.
 The calculation of yield is fundamental
importance in all water-resources
development studies.
 The various methods used for the estimation
of yield can be listed as

 1. Correlation of stream flow and rainfall

 2. Empirical equations
 3. Watershed simulations
 The relationship between rainfall and
resulting runoff is quite complex and is
influenced by a host of factors relating the
catchment and climate.
 Further, there is a problem of paucity (lack) of
data which forces one to adopt simple
correlations for the adequate estimation of
runoff.
 One of the most common methods is to
correlate runoff, R with rainfall, P values.
 Plotting of R values against P and drawing a
best-fit line can be adopted for very rough
estimates.
 A better method is to fit a linear regression
line between R and P and to accept the result
if the correlation coefficient is nearer unity.
 The equation of straight-line regression
between runoff R and rainfall P is
 R = aP+b
 And the values of the coefficient a and b are
given
 a = [N(∑PR)–(∑P)(∑R)]/[N((∑P2) - (∑P)2]
 And
 b = [(∑R)-a ∑(P/ N)]
 Here the N = number of observation set R and
P
 The coefficient of correlation r can be
calculated as
 r = [N(∑PR)-(∑P)(∑R)]/[N(∑P2)-(∑P)2][N(∑R2)-(∑R)2]
 The values of r lies in between 0 to 1.
 A value of 0.6 <r< 1 indicates good correlation.
 The empirical formula used for the estimation of
flood peak are essentially regional formula based
on statistical correlation of the observed peak and
important catchment properties.
 To simplify the form of the equation, only a few of
the many parameters affecting the flood peak are
used.
 The empirical formulas are only applicable to the
region from which they were developed and when
applied to other areas they can at best give
approximate values.
  Q = 9.66 x 10-12 .A 2.4035 S 1.446875
 Where
 Q is the discharge in m3/s,
 A is the catchment area in km2 and
 S is the mean percent slope.
12000

10000
Q(observed)
8000 Q(Calculated)

6000

4000

2000

0
Kachura Bunji Shaitial Besham Qila
 90000
Calculated Peaks by other Models
80000

70000 Observed Peak at Shitial Gauging

Station
60000
Discharge m 3/s

Calculated Peak from Developed

50000
Area Slope Model
40000

30000

20000

10000

0
Nawab Inglis Dicken Ryves Area Fuller Creager
Slope
 Research Article - Civil Engineering Arabian
Journal for Science and Engineering, June
2012, Volume 37, Issue 4, pp 945-954. First
online: 18 April 2012.
 Development of Empirical Equations for the
Peak Flood of the Chenab River Using GIS

 Habib-ur-Rehman, Usman Ali Naeem, Hashim Nisar, Naeem Ejaz

 In this the mathematical relationships
describing the interdependence of various
parameters in system are first prepared and
this is called the model.
 The model is then calibrated i.e. numerical
values of various coefficients determined, by
simulating the known rainfall-runoff records.
 The accuracy of the model is further checked
by reproducing the results of another string
of rainfall data for which rainfall values are
known.
 This phase is known as validation or
verification of the model.
 After this the model is ready to use
 It is well known that the streamflow varies
over the water year, one of the popular
methods of studying this streamflow
variability is through flow-duration curves.
 A flow duration curve of a stream is a plot of
discharge against the percent of time the
flow was equalled or exceeded.
 This curve is also known as discharge-
frequency curve
 The streamflow data is arranged in descending
order of discharges. The data used can be daily,
weekly, ten daily or monthly.
 If N is the number of data points used in a listing,
the plotting position of any discharge Q is given
 Pp = {m/N+1}x100%
 Where m is the order number of discharge
 Pp is the percentage probability of flow
magnitude being equaled or exceeded
 Daily Discharge m3/s

Percentage Time
 A flood is usually high stage in river normally the
level at which the river over flows its banks and
inundates the adjoining area.
 The damages caused by floods in terms of loss
of life, property and economic loss due to
disruption of economic activity are all too well
known.
 The hydrographs of extreme floods and stages
corresponding to flood peaks provide valuable
data for purposes of hydrologic design.
 To estimate the magnitude of a flood peak
the following alternative methods are
available

 1. Rational method
 2. Empirical Method (already discussed)
 3. Unit Hydrograph (already discussed)
 4. Flood Frequency Studies
 Consider a rainfall of uniform intensity and very
long duration occurring over a basin. The runoff
rate gradually increases from zero to constant
value.
 The runoff increases as more and more flow
from remote areas of the catchment reach the
outlet.
 Designate the time taken for a drop of water
from the farthest part of the catchment to reach
the outlet as tc = time of concentration
 It is obvious that if the duration of rainfall
exceeds the time of concentration tc the
runoff will be constant and at the peak value.
 The peak value of the runoff is given by
 Qp = CiA for t ≥ tc
 Where
 C = coefficient of runoff = runoff/rainfall
 A = is area of catchment and
 i = is the intensity of rainfall
 This is basic equation of rational method.
 The coefficient C represents the integrated
effect of catchment losses and hence
depends on nature of surface, surface slope
and rainfall intensity.
 Time of concentration(tc) can be found by
using Kirpich Equation (1940) given as
 tc = 0.01947 L0.77 S-0.385
 tc = Time of concentration (minutes)
 L = maximum length of travel of water (m)
 S = slope of the catchment = ΔH/L
 ΔH = Difference in elevation between the
most remote point on the catchment and the
outlet
 The purpose of frequency analysis is to
estimate frequency of occurrence of floods,
droughts or storms of maximum rainfall.
 Hydrologic parameters from available record
of data are predicted. Using these parameters
the data is extrapolated for future
forecasting.
 The accuracy of prediction depends on
accuracy and correctness of available records.
 An objective of frequency analysis may be the
estimation of maximum possible discharge of
a stream or river that will be encountered
after a certain time period.
 It is an average value of time of occurrence of
hydrologic outcome.
 It is an average and not the exact period of
becoming equal to or exceeded from a
certain value of a hydrologic quantity.
 Return period is also called recurrence
interval.
 T = 1/P
 Where P is the probability of occurrence and
is given as
 P = m / N+1
 Where m is the order number of the event
and N is total number of events in the data.
 Chow (1951) showed that most frequency-
distribution functions applicable to hydrologic
studies can be expressed as
 xT = xm + Kδn-1
 Where
 xT = value of variate X of a random hydrologic
series with return period T
 xm is the mean of the variate
 δ is the standard deviation of the variate
 K = frequency factor which depends on the
return period T and assumed frequency
distribution
 Some of the commonly used frequency
distribution functions for the predication of
extreme flood values are
 1. Gumble extreme value distribution
 2. Log-Pearson Type III distribution
 3. Log-Normal Distribution
 According to his theory
 xT = xm + Kδn-1
 δn-1 = Standard deviation of sample of size N
 = [∑(x-xm)2/(N-1)]1/2
 K is frequency factor and is given by
 K = yT – yn / Sn
 yT is the reduced variate, a function of T and is
 yT = -[ln.ln(T/T-1)]
 Values of yn & Sn can be found by using the
Table
 Annual maximum recorded floods in a river
for period 1951 to 1977 is given in the table.
Estimate the flood discharge with recurrence
interval of
 i- 100 years
 ii- 150 years
Year Discharge Year Discharge Year Discharge
1951 2947 1961 4290 1971 4175
1952 3521 1962 4652 1972 2988
1953 2399 1963 5050 1973 2709
1954 4124 1964 6900 1974 3873
1955 3496 1965 4366 1975 4593
1956 2947 1966 3380 1976 6761
1957 5060 1967 7826 1977 1971
1958 4903 1968 3320
1959 3757 1969 6599
1960 4798 1970 3700
 Year DISCHARGE
1967 7826
1964 6900
1976 6761
1969 6599
1957 5060
1963 5050
1958 4903
 The flood discharge 1960
1962
4798
4652
values are arranged 1975
1965
4593
4366
in descending order. 1961
1971
4290
4175
1954 4124
1974 3873
1959 3757
1970 3700
1952 3521
1955 3496
1966 3380
1968 3320
1972 2988
1951 2947
1956 2947
1973 2709
1953 2399
1977 1971
 Finding Mean of
the data
Mean Xm 4263.148148
 Finding Standard
Deviation Standard
Deviation δx 1432.582034
 Also N = 27 years
 Now using Table
 For N = 27
 yn = 0.5332 and
 Sn = 1.1004
 Estimating yT for 100 years
 Hence T = 100
 Using yT = -[ln.ln(100/100-1)]
 yT = 4.60015
 Since
 K = yT – yn / Sn
 =(4.60015 – 0.5332) / 1.1004
 K = 3.696
 Finally finding
 xT = xm + Kδn-1
 = 4263 + (3.696 x 1432.6)
 x100 = 9557.88 m3/s

 Similarly
 x150 = 10088 m3/s