NDT Ri Lecture (2b) - Ka

Radiographic Inspection
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World Centre for Materials Joining Technology Copyright © 2006, TWI Ltd
CERTIFICATION SCHEMES
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CERTIFICATION
CSWIP/PCN ( UK ) ASNT/ACCP ( US )
• EN 473 • ASNT ( SNTC – 1A )

• ISO 9712 Use within the company
• ACCP
EN473
ISO 9712
Course Layout
• Duration : 5 Days (Mon – Fri)
• Start : 8:30 am
• Coffee Break : 10:00 – 10:30 am
• Lunch : 12:30 – 1:30 pm
• Tea Break : 3:00 – 3:30 pm
• Day End : 5:00 pm
• Course Objective: To train and prepare participants
to obtain required skills and knowledge in Radiographic
Interpretation and to meet the examination schemes
requirements.
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Radiographic Interpretation CSWIP
Examination
1 hour  Theory: Radiographic general theory 40
multiple-choice questions
30 mins  Theory: Radiographic sector specific theory 20

 Practical: Interpretation of Radiographs
Density check and 5 questions sensitivity
Refer to BS EN 462 part 1 and 3
10 mins /graph  Metal Group A: Ferrous 6 Radiographs
 Metal Group B: Austenitic 6 Radiographs

 Metal Group C: Aluminum 3 Radiographs
 Metal Group D: Copper 3 Radiographs
Radiographic Interpretation PCN
Examination
1 hour  Theory: Radiographic general theory 40
45 mins  Theory: Radiographic sector specific theory 30

15 mins/graph  Practical: Interpretation of Radiographs
6 radiographs ‘Dense metal welds’ Group comprising of:
Ferritic steels including clad steels, Austenitic steels and high nickel
alloys, Copper, Copper alloys, Monel and Titanium alloys:
manufactured by the MMA, MAG, MIG, TIG, mechanised fusion
welding, and oxy-acetylene welding processes.
6 radiographs ‘Light metal welds’ Group comprising of:

Aluminium, Magnesium and their alloys:
manufactured by the MIG and TIG welding processes
Radiographic Interpretation Examination
Before attempting the examination, you must provide the
following
1. Two passport size photographs, with your name and
signature on reverse side.
2. Eye test certificate, the certificate must show near
vision and colour tests.
3. Completed examination Form, you can print from the
website www.twisea.com.
4. Your current CV / Resume, your CV must be emailed or
faxed to the following for evaluation by the
examination manager.
E-mail: shajprem@twisea.com
Fax: +60 3 61572378
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Examination of materials and components in such
a way that allows material to be examinated
without changing or destroying their usefulness
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NDT
Most common NDT methods:
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Mainly used for
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) surface testing
Eddy Current Testing (ET)
Radiographic Testing (RT)

Mainly used for
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Internal Testing
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History of Radiography
• WC Roentgen 1895
• H Becquerel 1896
• Marie and Pierre Curie 1898
• W .Coolridge 1913
• Radium Committee 1910-15
• Geiger-Muller 1920’s
• First use of radiography in industrial
applications, late 1920’s
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• X-rays are capable of passing straight through a solid
object.
• The amount of X-radiation that passes through a given
object depends on the density and thickness of the
object.
• Transmitted X-radiation can be detected by
photographic film or fluorescent screens.
• This forms the basis of Radiographic Inspection, a
powerful technique, which is applicable virtually all
materials.
Principles of Radiography
X - Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically Generated by the
generated decay of unstable
atoms
Source
Radiation beam Image quality indicator
Radiographic film Test specimen
Source
Radiation beam Image quality indicator
Test specimen
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

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The basis of radiography
Source
Thin
part
Thick part
Film
Lighter Darker
Region on region on
radiograph radiograph
Advantages of Radiography
• Directly produces a permanent record.
• Capable of detecting internal flaws.
• Useful for the non-destructive testing of
virtually all materials and product forms.
• Real - time imaging is possible in some
applications.
Disadvantages of Radiography
• Radiation hazard.
• Sensitivity is affected by defect orientation
— Limited ability to detect fine cracks and other
planar defects.
• Access to two sides is required.
• Limited by material thickness.
• Skilled interpretation is required.
• Relatively slow.
• High capital outlay and running costs.
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Fluoroscopy
X-ray
unit
Fluorescent Thick,dark Thin, light
screen
Lead
glass
Fluorescent light
mirror
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Fluoroscopy
Advantages Disadvantages
• Real time imaging • No permanent record
• Fast inspection • Hazardous to operator
technique • Limited to thickness
• No film processing (Good for thin material)
required
• Can permit viewing in
all direction
What is radiation?
• Radio waves, light, X-rays, g-rays and other forms
of radiation take the form of:
— Waves of energy associated with electrical and
magnetic fields which are at right angles to each
other and the direction of propagation.
— Electromagnetic Radiation
• Electromagnetic radiation has no mass and is not
affected by magnetic or electrical fields, or, to any
great extent, by gravity.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Wavelength v Photon Energy
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Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
V

f
V  2.997 x10 m / sec 8
E = hf
Where h is Planks constant
(= 6.626196 x 10-34Js)
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Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Travels at the speed of light.

• Travels through a vacuum.
• Travels in a straight line.
• No electrical charge or mass.
• Intensity proportional to 1/D2 where D is
the distance from the source.
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Inverse Square Law
D1
D2
Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation:
X & GAMMA RAYS

• Absorbed and scattered by matter.
• Not refracted by matter.
• Cause ionisation, therefore often referred to as
“IONISING RADIATION”.
• Will darken photographic film emulsion and will
cause some materials to fluoresce in the visible or
ultraviolet spectrum.
• Cannot be detected by human senses.
• EXTREMELY HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH.
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Atomic Structure
• Atoms are thought to consist of a positively
charged nucleus surrounded by one or more
negatively charged electrons that orbit the
nucleus.
• The Nucleus consists of positively charged
particles called protons and electrically neutral
particles called neutrons.
• A neutron can be thought of as a proton closely
combined with an electron.
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Atomic Structure
• Protons : have positive charge and, by definition,
an atomic mass of 1.
• Neutrons : have no electrical charge, atomic
mass very slightly greater than 1.
• Electrons : have negative charge equal in
magnitude to that of a proton but are very much
smaller at a mass of 1/1836 that of a proton.
• Number protons = Number electrons
(usually!)
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Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
The number of protons this dictates the
element type.
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A)

The number of protons + neutrons, this
can
be altered in order to make artificial
isotopes.
Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
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Atomic Structure
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Production Of Artificial
Isotopes
Inserted Removed
Neutron
Stable cobalt Unstable
Flux
- 59 cobalt - 60
Each Co 59 Each Co 60
Nucleus Nucleus
contains :27 contains :27
protons Nuclear Reactor protons
32 neutrons 33 neutron
Only a relatively few Co 59 atoms become Co 60
depending on the time in the reactor and the
magnitude of the neutron fluxCopyright © 2006, TWI Ltd
World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Isotopes
• Atoms of an element having the same atomic
number but different atomic mass.
• The difference in atomic mass is due to a
difference in the number of neutrons in the
nucleus.
• Some isotopes are stable, while others are
unstable.
• Unstable isotope is radioactive.
• This means they are unstable & will change in
some way to attain a stable condition.
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Isotopes of Hydrogen
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DEUTERIUM
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Isotopes of Hydrogen
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TRITIUM
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Radioactive Isotopes
• Some isotopes are stable, others are not.

• Unstable isotopes transform into another
element and in so doing emit radiation.
• 3 forms of radiation:
• Alpha (α), Beta (β) & Gamma (g)
• Neutrons may also be emitted.
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Radioactive Emissions
Alpha particles a+
• Emitted by large nuclei such as uranium or
plutonium
• Composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons - a
Helium nucleus
226
88 Ra  222
86 Rn  He
4
2
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Beta particles: b-
• Emitted by neutron rich nuclei such as
uranium or plutonium
• Composed of high speed electrons
-
14
6 C N  e 14
7
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Gamma particles (or photons): g
• Emitted following the emission of an alpha or beta
particle
• Composed of photons of energy
• It has some of the properties of particles but it has
characteristic wavelength & its frequency can be
determined.
• Gamma rays & X-rays are not particle & have no mass
or weight.
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Radioactive Decay
210
82 Pb Bi  Po Pb 210
83
210
84
206
82
b - g b- a g
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Rate of Decay
• At the level of individual atoms radioactive
decay is RANDOM, but for each isotope each
individual atom has the same PROBABILITY
OF DECAY.
• A 2 x 1 mm cylinder of Iridium contains
around 1020 atoms; when so many atoms all
have the same probability of decay the result
is a constant HALF LIFE, even though each
individual decay event is RANDOM.
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Rate of Decay
• Curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations / second
• Becquerel = 1 disintegration / second
• Half Life Time taken for the activity of

an isotope to reduce by a half
Cobalt 60 5.3 years

Iridium 192 74 days
Ytterbium 169 32 days
Uranium 238 4.47 x 1010 years
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Rate of Decay
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Industrial Radiography
• Gamma Rays
• X - Rays
Generated by the
Electrically generated
decay of unstable
isotopes
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Radiography
Gamma Rays
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Gamma Ray Radiography
• Gamma rays are produced from

artificial isotopes, example Cobalt
60, Iridium 192.
• The first gamma ray emitting
radioisotopes to be used in
industrial radiography were
naturally occurring radioactive
material such as RADIUM
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GAMMA-RAY EQUIPMENT
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GAMMA-RAY EQUIPMENT
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SEALED SOURCES
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Radioactive Isotopes
Some isotopes are stable others are not

Unstable isotopes transform into another
element and in so doing emit radiation in
3 forms
a Alpha (particles)
b Beta (particles)
g Gamma (rays)
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Characteristics of isotopes
• Energy level
• Radiation Output
• Half Life
• Specific Activity
• Line Spectra
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Wavelengths
Intensity Mev.
Co 60
1.17 to1.3 Mev
Relative
Ir 192
0.3 to 0.47 Mev
Yb 169
0.06 to 0.2 Mev
Long Wavelength  Short

Gamma line spectrum (discrete energies), the wave length is not of a fixed
nature. A number of frequencies will be emitted for most sources.
Descrite wavelengths gives Gamma an advantage to give a
better latitude.
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ISOTOPES USED IN INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
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ISOTOPES USED IN INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
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Radiography
X-ray production
X-Rays are produced form electrical

equipment referred to as x-ray tubes or
x-ray tube heads
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X-Ray Production
• X-rays are produced by the deceleration of high
velocity electrons.
• Part or all of the kinetic energy of the electron is
converted into electromagnetic radiation (X-rays).
• Kinetic energy is controlled by velocity:
Ek = ½mv2 and is usually stated in keV or MeV.
• Electron velocity in an x-ray tube is controlled by
tube voltage.
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X-Ray Production
Requirements
• Electron source
• Means of accelerating electrons to a high
velocity
• Means of halting electrons
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Atomic structure of Tungsten ( Anode)
99 % will changed into

Lower velocity electron heat and light
(Bremsstrahlung)
Higher velocity electron
Higher velocity electron
Polychromatic ray
Characteristic X-ray
Continuous X-ray
(Monochromatic ray)
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X-Ray Production
1. Electron Source : Tungsten Filament
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X-Ray Production
Current
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X-Ray Production
Current
Free
electrons
THERMIONIC EMISSION
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X-Ray Production
2. Accelerating Electron : Potential
Difference
-ve +ve
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X-Ray Production
Difference
-ve +ve
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X-Ray Production
Difference
-ve +ve
Focusing cup concentrates

electrons into a beam
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X-Ray Production
3. Means of Halting Electrons : High Density
Material
-ve +ve
Tungsten Target
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X-Ray Production
3. Means of Halting Electrons : High Density
Material
-ve +ve
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X-Ray Production
Kinetic energy converted to Heat and X-Rays
-ve +ve
X-rays / Bremsstrahlung
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Problems
• Electrons travel for only short distances

through gasses
• Kinetic Energy converted into 97% heat and
3% X-rays
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X-Ray Production
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X-Ray Production - HEAT
• In any X-ray tube around 95% of the energy
generated is in the form of heat
• For typical 200kV portable equipment around 1kW of
heat has to be dissipated
• For a 300kV constant potential laboratory unit heat
generation is typically 7.5kW
• X-ray tubes of all types therefore require a cooling
system in order to prevent overheating and increase
duty cycle
• Older type sets having glass envelope tubes are
generally oil or gas cooled
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X-Ray Production - HEAT
• A rotating anode may be used in order to help
dissipate heat - this type of arrangement is generally
limited to X-ray units intended for medical use.
• Modern X-ray units have so-called “metal-ceramic”
envelopes. The use of such envelopes makes it
practical to have a much higher potential difference
between the electrodes and the envelope than was
the case with glass.
• This in turn permits the use of “grounded anodes”.
• Such anodes are at zero volts and can therefore be
cooled directly by water
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X-Ray Production - Anodes
Directional Type
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PANORAMIC
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ROD-ANODE
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ROTATING-ANODE
USED MAINLY
FOR LOW kV,
VERY HIGH
TUBE CURRENT,
EQUIPMENT IN
MEDICAL
APPLICATIONS
ROTATING-ANODE
X-Ray Production
• Tube current
controls the amount
or intensity of
radiation
• Tube voltage controls

the “quality” or
penetrating ability of
the radiation
X-Ray Production
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X-Ray Production
• Current can flow across an x-ray tube only when
the cathode (i.e. the filament) is negative and the
anode (i.e. the target) is positive.
• Therefore if an x-ray tube is energised using a
simple AC supply x-rays will be produced only
when the supply polarity is such that the cathode is
negative and the anode is positive.
• Simple AC x-ray machines are therefore referred
to as “SELF-RECTIFIED”.
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X-Ray Production
• Output of x-rays can be more than doubled if
the AC supply is rectified.
• X-ray equipment fitted with a rectifying circuit
is referred to as “CONSTANT POTENTIAL.”
• Most CP units use a GREINACHER CIRCUIT
to rectify the AC supply.
• CP units produce harder radiation than SR,
even when operating at the same tube
voltage.
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A.C. Circuit
+
The effect of a.c. on the direction of current flow.

In an x-ray tube x-rays can only be produced when
the current is travelling from the cathode (-ve) to the
anode (+ve).
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Half Wave rectified Circuit
+
In the half wave rectified circuit the anode is

only positive every half cycle, therefore the
electrons will only flow from the filament
during that time. The x-rays are only produced
during the positive half cycle.
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Constant Potential Circuit
+
The introduction of separate rectifiers into the

circuit, produces a constant electron flow from
the cathode to anode and therefore a relatively
constant output of x-rays. This circuit is know
as a Greinacher circuit.
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X-Ray Set Circuits
Constant Potential Half Wave Rectified
Advantages Advantages
•High output/unit time •More commonly used on site
•100% duty cycle •More robust
•Shorter exposure times •Portable/lighter
Disadvantages Disadvantages
•Bulky equipment •Low output/unit time
•Expensive •Longer exposure times

•Low duty cycle 50%
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X-Ray Production
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X-Ray Production
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X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production
X-Ray Production
Determination of focal spot size
X- RAY TUBE
FOCAL SPOT 250 mm
LEAD SHEET ~ 4 mm W.T.

FOCAL SPOT SIZE 0.25 mm Dia HOLE
DETERMINED BY 250 mm
Image Dimension - (2 X Hole Size)
4 mm - (2 X 0.25) = 3.5 mm
FILM AND CASSETTE
LARGEST IMAGE DEVELOPED FILM

DIMENSION e.g. 4mm
Measurement of the longest linear dimension of the image

Advantages of Gamma rays
compared with X rays
• No water or electrical supplies needed
• Equipment smaller and lighter-therefore more
portable
• Easier to perform radiography in confined or
difficult to access areas
• Equipment simpler and more robust
• Less scatter (no low energy radiation)
• Less initial cost
• Greater penetrating power
• Better latitude (range of thickness)
Disadvantages of Gamma rays
compared with X rays
• Reduced radiographic contrast
• Exposure times generally longer
• Sources need replacing - potentially greater in-
service costs
• Radiation cannot be switched off
• Generally inferior geometric unsharpness (SFD is
usually minimised to obtain economic exposure
time)
• Remote handling necessary
• Penetrating power cannot be adjusted
HIGH ENERGY X-RAY SOURCES
• X-Ray energies of up to 30 MeV are produced using “linear

accelerators” or “betatrons”. Electrostatic (Van der Graaf)
generators are also used occasionally.
• Linear Accelerators (Linacs) accelerate electrons to high
velocity using an electric wave (RF). Electrons “surf” the
electrical waves and attain high velocity.
• Betatrons accelerate electrons along a spiral path by means
of magnetic fields.
• Van der Graaf generators can develop high electrical
potentials by mechanical means, such electrical potentials
can be used to accelerate electrons.
Radiographic Film
Base
Base must be :-
1. Transparent - To allow white light to go through
2. Chemically inert
3. Must not be susceptible to expansion and contraction
4. High tensile strength
5. Flexibility
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Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Subbing layer or substratum is the adhesive between the
emulsion and base
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Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing
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Radiographic Film
Supercoat
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Supercoat
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Image formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially
absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and any
differing densities
The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient
amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce the
latent image (hidden image)
1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into metallic

silver to produce the latent image
2. The affected crystals are the amplified by the developer, the
developer completely converts the affected crystals into
black metallic silver
3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by fixation
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Radiographic Film
Pre-exposure After Exposure
Un-sensitised : Stable Sensitised : Unstable
During exposure a “latent image” is formed by

“sensitised” Silver Halide crystals
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LATENT IMAGE FORMATION
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• Silver Bromide crystals are not perfect, they
contain “interstitial” silver ions
• When an interstitial silver ion accepts a free
electron, it becomes a silver atom
• The silver atom is larger than the ion and
exerts a stress on the crystal lattice
• In the presence of developer this stress
causes instability and the crystal breaks down
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• The interstitial silver atoms nucleate silver
crystals
• A single interstitial silver atom is sufficient to
cause an entire silver bromide crystal to
convert to metallic silver
• The typical size of a silver bromide crystal in
a typical photographic film emulsion is about
1μm
• Sensitisation of a silver bromide crystal can
be caused by just a single photon of x-ray
energy
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Film Types
• Grain Size Speed Quality
Coarse Fast Poor
Medium Medium Medium
Fine Slow Good
Ultra Fine V.Slow V.Good
Intensifying Screens
• Film is usually placed between front & back
“intensifying screens”
• Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm, occasionally
“salt” screens may be used
• Lead screens shorten exposure time and improve
image quality by helping to reduce the effects of
scattered radiation
• Salt screens shorten exposure time, often
dramatically, but produce inferior image quality
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• Metallic - Usually lead, but other metals such
as copper may be used.
• Salt - Usually Calcium Tungstate
• Fluorometallic - These are salt screens with a
metal foil backing. They combine the
advantages of metallic and salt screens,
however, they are extremely expensive and
they are easily damaged
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Intensifying Screens (Metallic)
• For radiation energy of 120 keV or greater front and back lead
intensifying screens are commonly used.
• The optimum thickness of such screens varies with radiation energy

but 0.02mm to 0.15mm is typical.
• The front screen reduces the effect of radiation scattered by objects

situated in front of the film (including the object which is being
radiographic) and helps to shorten exposure time.
• The back screen reduces the effect of radiation scattered by objects

situated behind the film and (to a lesser extent when compared with
the front screen) helps to reduce back scatter.
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• Metal Usually Pb - Intensification factor about

2x for radiation energies in excess of 120 keV
• Salt - Intensification factor may be as high as
500x
• Fluorometallic - Intensification factor about
50x
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Comparison Chart, Intensifying
Screens
Screen type Order of Order of Intensification How
image speed factor intensification
quality is achieved
Lead Electrons -ve

1 3 2-3
Beta radiation
Fluorescent 4 1 8-15 Light
Fluorometallic 3 2 radiation
5-10 Light
radiation
None 2 4 N/A None
An intensification factor of 3 will reduce exposure

from six minutes to two minutes
Film processing
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Processing Systems
Developer
Stop Running water
bath
Manual System
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Film Processing
• Developer - reducing agent - ALKALINE

• Stop Bath - acetic acid
• Fixer - dissolves silver halide - ACIDIC
• Washing
• Drying
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Film Processing
Development
Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver
3-5 min at 20OC
Main Constituents
Developing agent metol-hydroquinone
Accelerator keeps solution alkaline
Restrainer ensures only exposed silver halides converted
Preservative prevents oxidation by air
Replenishment
Purpose – to ensure that the activity of the developer and the
developing time required remains constant
Guideline – 1. After 1m2 of film has been developed,
about 400 ml of replenisher needs to be added
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Developer
• In order to increase the working life of the developer
replenisher should be added in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Replenisher replaces used reducing agent and

maintains alkalinity. It also maintains the depth of
developer in the processing tank (during processing
there are losses due to carry-over and evaporation).
• Keeping a record of how much film has been

processed helps in deciding how much replenisher to
add.
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Film Processing
• Stop Bath:
• 3% Acetic acid neutralises the developer, stops the

development process and increases fixer life
It is common to add an indicator to the stop bath to confirm it’s
acidity.
• The stop bath should always be held at approximately the same

temperature as the developer & fixer as sudden temperature
changes can damage the film emulsion
• A soaking time in the stop bath of just a few seconds is sufficient

to arrest development and neutralise alkalinity
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Film Processing
Fixer
• A solution of sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate.
• Fixer is mildly acidic (acetic acid stabilises the solution).
• Unexposed, undeveloped silver halides are leached out of the

film emulsion.
• Fixer commonly contains a hardener. This helps to promote

rapid even drying, it also makes the wet film easier to handle.
• Fixing time is generally taken to be twice the “clearing time” but

should not exceed 4 minutes. Leaving film in fixer for a an
extended period may cause the film emulsion to peel away from
the base.
Fixer
• Like Developer fixer may be replenished.
• When unexposed film is placed in the fixer bath it will
be observed to “clear” as the silver halides are
dissolved by the fixer. “Clearing time” is an important
measure of fixer condition. Clearing time for new
fixer will usually be less than 30 seconds. Fixer will
usually be replaced when the clearing time exceeds 2
minutes.
• Radiographs are usually fixed for a time equal to
twice the clearing time.
• Fixer contains a hardener which helps to prevent
swelling of the film emulsion and accelerate drying.
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Fixer
• During the fixing process large amounts of

silver accumulate in the fixer solution.
• Therefore it is common practice to recover

silver from spent fixer.
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Film Processing
• Washing:
•
20 - 30 minute (in clean running water)
Usually followed by dipping in a clean water bath containing a

wetting agent which helps to promote even drying.
NOTE: OVERWASHING MUST BE AVOIDED

Over washing will cause swelling and excessive softening of the
film emulsion, a major cause of “drying marks”.
• Insufficiently washed radiographs will discolour and their shelf

life will be limited.
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FILM ARTEFACTS
• During radiography and film processing

images can be formed which are not due a
defect or a change in component thickness.
• Such images are referred to as ARTEFACTS.
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FILM ARTEFACTS
• Crimp marks
• Dirty intensifying screens
• Scratched intensifying screens
• Static marks
• Reticulation
• Solarisation
• Chemical or water splashes
• Diffraction mottling
• Drying marks
• Steakiness
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Light Leaks
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Crimping Marks
Before exposure After exposure

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FILM ARTEFACTS
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FILM ARTEFACTS
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FILM ARTEFACTS
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Static Discharge
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Reticulation
Caused by the emulsion
rupturing due to excessive
temperature differences
between processing tanks
The appearance is a net like
structure or leather grain
It is a rare artifact due to the
flexible/plastic nature of modern
emulsions
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Reticulation
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FILM ARTEFACTS
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FILM ARTEFACTS
• SOLARISATION
• Solarisation is image reversal due to extreme
over exposure or exposure to light during
development
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Chemical Marks
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FILM ARTEFACTS
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FILM ARTEFACTS
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FILM ARTEFACTS
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FILM ARTEFACTS
Diffraction mottle
 Occurs in a radiograph due to the
grain size or orientation of certain
materials such as stainless steels and
aluminum
 The appearance is fine porosity or
Herringbone porosity throughout the
weld area on the radiograph
 It may be reduced or eliminated by
reducing the wavelength or by
changing the radiation angle by
approximately 5o
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FILM ARTEFACTS
Diffraction
Mottle
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FILM ARTEFACTS
• DRYING MARKS
• Dark marks caused by uneven drying
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FILM ARTEFACTS
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Radiographic Techniques
• Single Wall Single Image(SWSI)
• Double Wall Single Image(DWSI)
• Double Wall Double Image(DWDI)
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RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
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Radiographic Techniques
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Radiographic Technique
Identification
• Unique identification
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Identification
• Pitch markers (Location
markers)
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Identification
• Pitch markers
• IQI’s
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FACTORS AFFECTING EXPOSURE
Specimen Radiographic
• Material type • Film speed
• Thickness • Quality of radiation
• FFD or SFD
• Screens
• Filters
• Development
• Density required
• Intensity of Radiation
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Exposure Charts
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Exposure Charts
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Exposure Calculations
50kV 100kV 150kV 220kV 400kV
Mg 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.08
Al 1 1 0.12 0.08
Ti 0.45 0.35
Cu 18 1.6 1.4 1.4
Steel 12 1 1 1
Zn 1.4 1.3 1.3
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EQUIVALENCE FACTORS
• Equivalence factors are used to convert a

thickness of a given material to a radiographic
equivalent thickness of another material for which
exposure times are known.
• Equivalence factors vary with radiation quality.
• e.g.: convert 50 mm of Aluminium to an
equivalent thickness of steel using 100 kV x-rays:
Te = 50 x 1  12 = 4.17 mm
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Exposure Calculation
Film Speed Chart
D7 D5 D4
Agfa
CX AX MX
Kodak
150 100 80
Fuji
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
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Relative Exposure
Change of Film: e.g.: from CX to MX
Original Exposure 4 mins

Film factor for CX 2.5
Film factor for MX 10
New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins

2.5
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Exposure = Intensity x Time
3 mA at 2 minutes = 6 mA minutes
1 mA at 6 minutes = 6 mA minutes
RECIPROCITY LAW
Exposure control
• For FFD/SFD change
E1 = D 1 2
E2 D2 2
E1 = New exposure time
E2 = Original exposure time
D1 = New FFD
D2 = Original FFD
Change of FFD
Original Exposure 4 mins
Original FFD 1000 mm
New FFD 750 mm
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Exposure control
• For FFD/SFD change
Example:
Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 600
mm
Original exposure at 500mm was 10 min
(600) 2
E1 = X 10 = 14.4 mins
(500) 2
Characteristic Curves
• Increasing exposures are applied to successive areas
of a film
• After development the film density is measured
• The density is then plotted against the log of the
relative exposure
The resultant graph is called the
“Characteristic Curve”
or
“Sensitometric Curve”
or
“Hunter-Driffield Curve”
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The relationship
between exposure time
and resultant film
density is non-linear
The gradient of the

film characteristic
curve is a measure of
film contrast
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• Film A is coarse grain
& is faster than Film B
&C
• Film B is fine grain and
it’s speed is
intermediate between
Film A & C
• Film C is ultra-fine
grain and is the
slowest of the three
• A “fast” film requires a
shorter exposure time
than a “slow” film
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1.63 - 1.31 = 0.32 Antilog 0.32 = 2.1
Original Exposure = 10 mAmin
Using D7 Film a
New Exposure = 2.1 X 10 = 21 mAmin density of 1.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin
What exposure is
required to achieve a
density of 2.5?
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2.07 - 1.63 = 0.44 Antilog 0.44 = 2.75
Original Exposure = 10 mAmin
New Exposure = 2.75 X 10 = 27.5 mAmin
Using D7 Film a
density of 2.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin
What exposure is
required to achieve a
density of 2.5 using
MX film?
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Localisation
• The through thickness position of a defect

cannot be determined by single exposure
radiography.
• A technique called “TUBE SHIFT” or “SOURCE
SHIFT” can be used to determine through
thickness position.
• This technique is occasionally referred to as
stereo radiography.
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Localisation
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RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
• The ability of a radiograph to detect a small
change in section thickness.
Affected by :
• Definition: the degree of sharpness of a
radiographic image
&
• Contrast: the degree to which two adjacent
areas of different film density can be
distinguished one from the other.
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Factors Influencing Sensitivity
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Radiography
Radiographic Quality
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• Density
• Contrast
• Definition
• Image Quality Indicators
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FILM DENSITY
• The DEGREE OF DARKENING of a processed film is
called FILM DENSITY.
• Film Density is a logarithmic unit:
Where I1 is the incident light intensity and I2 is the transmitted

light intensity
Thus if Film Density = 2, the incident light intensity is 100x

greater than the transmitted intensity
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Radiographic Film Density
• National codes and standards for radiography of welds and
castings invariably define a minimum level of film density:
• ASME V requires a minimum film density of 1.8 for x-

radiography of welds and a minimum of 2.0 for gamma
techniques.
• BS EN 1435 requires a minimum film density of 2.0 for

standard x or gamma radiography of welds and a minimum of
2.3 for enhanced techniques.
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• Radiographic films provide good contrast at film
densities exceeding about 1.5.
• Radiographs with a density exceeding 3.5 or perhaps
4.0 cannot be properly viewed and assessed on
standard radiographic film illuminators.
• Film density is easily measured using a densitometer
or by comparison with a calibrated density strip.
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Radiographic Density
Incident light
Density =Log10
Transmitted light
 If the transmitted light is 1/10 of the incident light

Density = 1.0
Density = 2.0
Density = 3.0
Measuring Radiographic Density
1.23 1.88 2.13 2.44 2.63 2.93 3.03 3.53 4.2

3
Density Strip
 Density is measured by a
densitometer
 A densitometer should be
calibrated using a density strip
Measuring Radiographic Density
Reading
1.72 2.17 2.67 2.97 3.04
from strip
Reading from
Densitometer 1.82 2.07 2.79 2.85 3.14
Deviation
+ 0.10 - 0.10 + 0.12 - 0.12 + 0.10
+ or -
Serial Number
from density #2000 #2000 #2000 #2000 #2000
strip
Serial Number
from KL124/0 KL124/0 KL124/0 KL124/0 KL124/0
densitometer
Lack of Density Excessive Density

• Under exposure • Over exposure
• Developer temp too low • Excessive development
• Exhausted developer • Developer temp too high
• Developer too weak • Too strong a solution
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• Density The ability to differentiate
• Contrast areas of different film
density
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Radiographic Contrast
Low contrast
Low contrast
Good contrast
Contrast
Subject contrast :- Contrast arising from variation in
opacity within an irradiated area
Radiographic :- The density difference on a radiography
between two areas- usually subject and
the background (overall)
Film contrast :- The slope of characteristic curve of the film at
specified density. ( Type of film being used, fine
grain or large grain)
Film Contrast Subject Contrast
Film Density
Processing Scatter Wavelength Absorption
type
Type of differences
screens in specimen
As kilovoltage increases, subject contrast decreases because more
wavelengths penetrate the subject in both thick and thin sections, thus reducing the
overall difference in exposure between the two .
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Insufficient Contrast
• kV too high
Excessive Contrast
• Over exposure
• kV too low
compensated for by
shortened development • Incorrect developer
• Incorrect film - screen • Incorrect film - screen
combination combination
• Scatter
• Fogged film
• Poor film processing
The sharpness of the dividing line

between different density fields
Definition
There are two types of unsharpness
in radiography:
Film or inherent unsharpness

&
Geometric unsharpness or
penumbra
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Radiographic Definition
Geometry Unsharpness ( Ug)

• Controlled by focal spot, focal to film distance
(FFD), object to film distance (OFD)
Inherent unsharpness (Ui)

• Controlled by the type of films being used (slow or fast),
type of screens and quality of radiation
Radiographic Definition
Geometric unsharpness Inherent unsharpness

•FFD/SFD • Film type
• OFD • Film Processing
• Source size • Intensifying screens
• Radiation Quality
• Fog
• Relative movement during
exposure
Radiographic Set-up
Gamma-source
X-Ray-focal spot
FOD/ FFD/
SOD SFD
OFD
FFD: focal spot to film distance - X-Ray

SFD: source to film distance - Gamma Ray
FOD: focal spot to object distance - X-Ray
SOD: source to object distance - Gamma Ray
OFD: object to film distance
Geometric Unsharpness
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Long Focal to Object Distance
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Short Focal to Object Distance
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Small Focus
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Large Focus
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Short Object to Film Distance
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Long Object to Film Distance
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Penumbra/Geometric Unsharpness (Ug)
Focal spot Penumbra = f x OFD

size FOD
Max Ug normally 0.25mm
fod Penumbra
ofd
Penumbra Calculation
Penumbra = f x OFD
FOD
f = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
SFD = 275mm
= 4 x 25
275 - 25
Penumbra = 0.4mm
Penumbra Calculation
Min FFD = f x OFD + OFD
Penumbra (0.25)
f = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
SFD = 275
= 4 x 25 + 25
0.25
Min SFD = 425mm
Reducing Geometric Unsharpness
• Source size as small as possible

• Source to object distance as long as possible
• Object to film distance as short as possible
• In a good quality technique geometric
unsharpness should be less than the inherent
unsharpness of the film - screen combination in
use
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Measuring Geometric Unsharpness
• The drilled holes in step - hole and plaque type

IQIs are intended as an indicator of geometric
unsharpness.
• Standard wire type IQIs are poor indicators of
geometric unsharpness.
• A special type of of IQI called a DUPLEX WIRE,
PLATINUM WIRE or CERL PENETRAMETER is
designed with a view to measuring geometric
unsharpness.
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DUPLEX IQIs
• BS 3971 (now superseded) defined two duplex

IQIs containing pairs of rectangular or cylindrical
section platinum and tungsten wires that were
intended to cover two thickness ranges.
• Other duplex type IQIs have been specified by
the Central European Research Laboratory
(CERL) and these contain pairs of rectangular
section platinum wires.
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BS 3971 DUPLEX IQI
TYPE IIIB for steel thickness 90 mm and greater
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BS 3971 DUPLEX IQI
BS 3971 DUPLEX IQI Type IIIB (all wires are tungsten)

Corresponding
Element Wire Width Wire Spacing Wire Depth
Unsharpness
Number (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm)
14 0.20 0.20 1.20 0.40
15 0.25 0.25 1.50 0.50
16 0.32 0.32 1.98 0.64
17 0.40 0.40 2.40 0.80
18 0.50 0.50 3.00 1.00
19 0.63 0.63 3.47 1.26
20 0.63 0.97 3.78 1.60
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BS 3971 DUPLEX IQI
Element 18 clearly defined,

indicating Ug = 1.00 mm
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Inherent Unsharpness
Inherent or film unsharpness is due to:
• The graininess of the film, fast films have larger

grain size than slow films.
• The type of intensifying screens, metallic foil
screens are much better than fluorescent
screens.
• The radiation energy, film unsharpness is
increased at high radiation energy.
• Film processing, development time and
temperature affect grain size.
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Inherent Un-sharpness
Stray electrons from
exposed crystals
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
Exposed radiograph
with crack like indication Adjacent crystals
affected by stray electrons
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TYPICAL INHERENT UNSHARPNESS FOR
Pb SCREENS / FINE GRAIN FILM
RADIATION INHERENT
SOURCE UNSHARPNESS (mm)
100 kV x-rays 0.05
200 kV x-rays 0.09
300 kV x-rays 0.12
400 kV x-rays 0.15
1000 kV x-rays 0.18
Iridium 192 0.17
Cobalt 60 0.35
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Image Quality Indicators
• Image Quality Indicators

or
• Penetrameters are used to measure

radiographic sensitivity and the quality of the
radiographic technique used
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• DEFINITIONS:
• SENSITIVITY: the sensitivity of any NDT method
is its ability to reveal the smallest flaw.
• IQI SENSITIVITY: is not an exact measure of the
true sensitivity of a radiographic technique.
IQIs are used in radiography to ensure that the

general overall quality of a radiographic
technique is adequate.
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7FE12
Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI
Duplex type IQI Wire type IQI
Step/Hole type IQI
• BS EN 462-1 Wire Type IQIs
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• BS EN 462-2 Step-Hole Type IQIs
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• Size of hole needs to be
identified on the radiograph.
• Resolution of the essential
hole / wire provides
verification of the adequacy
of the radiographic
technique.
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ASME Image Quality Indicators
4T dia
T dia
Penetrameter Design
2T dia
Minimum Penetrameter Thickness 0.12mm
Minimum Diameter for 1T Hole 0.25mm 12mm
17
Minimum Diameter for 2T Hole 0.50mm
Minimum Diameter for 4T Hole 1.00mm 38mm
T
Placement of IQI
• IQI must be placed on the maximum thickness of weld
• Thinnest required step or wire must be placed at the

extreme edge of section under test
• IQI must be placed at the source side
• In case of access problem , IQI has to placed on the
film side of the object, letter ‘FS’ should be placed beside
the IQI.
• IQI material chosen should have similar radiation
absorption/transmission properties to the test specimen
Step/Hole Type IQI
Wire Type IQI

• IQI sensitivity is usually expressed as a

percentage of “subject thickness”.
• For single wall single image and double wall
single image techniques the single wall thickness
is generally taken as “subject thickness”.
• For double wall double image techniques the
double wall thickness is used.
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Where:
T = Subject Thickness
&
t = Thickness of thinnest discernible wire or step
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IQI Sensitivity
 Ideally IQI should be placed on the source side

 IQI sensitivity is calculated from the following formula
Sensitivity % = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100

Total object thickness
As a rough guide sensitivity = 2.0% .
Thickness BS 3971 DIN 54 109 BS EN 462-2 BS EN 462-1
(mm) STEP WIRE WIRE (DIN 62) STEP/HOLE WIRE
1-6 7-12 13-18 4-10 9-15 15-21 1-7 6-12 10-16 H1 H5 H9 H 13 W1 W6 W 10 W 13
0.050 7
0.063 7 6
0.08 6 5
0.10 5 7 7 4
0.125 6 4 6 6 6 3
0.15
0.16 5 3 5 5 5 2
0.20 4 2 7 4 4 4 1
0.25 3 1 6 7 3 3 7 3
0.30
0.32 2 5 6 2 2 6 6 2
0.35
0.40 1 4 5 1 1 5 5 1
0.50 6 3 4 4 4
0.60
0.63 5 2 3 3 3
0.75
0.80 4 1 7 7 2 2 6 7 2
0.90
1.00 3 6 6 1 1 5 6 1
1.20
1.25 2 5 5 4 5
1.50 1 4
1.60 4 3 4
1.80 3
2.00 6 2 3 2 6 3
2.50 5 1 2 1 5 2
3.00
3.20 4 1 4 1
4.00 3 3
5.00 2 2
6.30 1 1
IQI Sensitivity
A Radiograph of a 16mm thick but weld is viewed
under the correct conditions, 5 wires visible on the
radiograph IQI pack 6-12 Din 62, what is the IQI
sensitivity?
Sensitivity = Thickness of thinnest wire visible X 100

Total weld thickness
Sensitivity = 0.4 X 100

16
Sensitivity = 2.5 %
IQI Sensitivity
Using the same IQI pack 6-12 Din 62, How many
IQI wires must be visible to give an IQI sensitivity
of 2 %
Thickness of thinnest wire visible =

Sensitivity X Total weld thickness
100
= 2.0 X 16
100
= 0.32 6 wires visible
IQI Sensitivity
BS EN 462
In the BS EN 462 IQI standard, the wire which should be
visible on the radiograph is shown in the applicable tables
given in BS EN 1435.
The image of the wire is only acceptable if a continuous
length of 10mm is visible.
The charts are based on two technique classes:
• Class A: basic techniques.
• Class B: improved techniques.
The charts are also based on the radiographic technique
being used an the penetrated material thickness
IQI Sensitivity
BS EN 1435 Minimum image quality values
Single-wall technique; Double-wall technique; Double image
Table B.1 Wire IQI Table B.5 Wire IQI
Image quality class A Image quality class A
Nominal thickness t IQI value Nominal thickness t IQI value
mm mm
Up to 1,2 W 18 Up to 1,2 W 18
Above 1,2 to 2 W 17 Above 1,2 to 2 W 17
Above 2,0 to3,5 W 16 Above 2,0 to3,5 W 16
Above 3,5 to 5 W 15 Above 3,5 to 5 W 15
Above 5,0 to 7 W 14 Above 5 to 7 W 14
Above 7 to 10 W 13 Above 7 to 12 W 13
Above 32 to 40 W9 Above 40 to 50 W9
IQI Sensitivity
BS EN 462
Using the minimum image quality value tables given in

BS EN 1435, which wire must be visible on the radiograph
for a SWSI technique, test class A, penetrated thickness
10mm ?
Table B.1
Answer W 13
IQI Sensitivity
BS EN 462
Using the minimum image quality value tables given in

BS EN 1435, which wire must be visible on the radiograph
for a DWSI technique IQI on film side, test class A, total
weld thickness 8mm ?
Table B.9
Answer W 14
• IQIs should wherever possible be placed “source

side”.
• For the double wall single image technique this is
not possible and IQIs are therefore placed “film
side”.
• Different requirements apply dependent on
whether the IQI is source or film side.
• It is good practice to place IQIs towards the ends
of the diagnostic area
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Scatter
• Radiation originating from any source other than

the “primary” source.
• Primary radiation is absorbed then
re-emitted in all directions.
• Scatter is a major contributor to poor radiographic
contrast and definition.
• Scatter may also cause a radiation hazard - dose
rates maybe locally increased by scattering effects.
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Scatter
Three major causes of scatter are:

• Photoelectric effect
• Compton scattering (incoherent scatter)
• Pair production
• Other scattering mechanisms exist, for

example: Rayleigh scattering (coherent
scattering)
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ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING
 Rayleigh scattering  Photoelectric effect
Occurs at very low energies Occurs at low energies
In this process, photons are The complete absorption of a
photon of energy by an atom with
deflected by outer electrons
the emission of an electron
with no change in energy
 Pair production
 Compton effect
Occurs at very high energies
Occurs at higher energies
The simultaneous formation of an
The interaction of a photon of positron (+ve electron) and a
energy by an electron resulting electron as a result of the
in the ejection of an electron interaction of a photon with the
from its atom with a certain nucleus of the atom. The particles
amount of energy. The are soon afterwards destroyed
remaining energy is scattered thus creating photons this is
known as Annihilation
this is known as COMPTON
SCATTER
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PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• In the photoelectric effect an electron absorbs all of the
energy of the incident x-ray photon.
• If the photon energy is sufficient the electron will be
completely ejected from the atom and ionisation will
occur.
• Where the incident photon has exactly the right amount
of energy the electron may simply jump from one
energy level to another.
• As the affected atom returns to its base state low
energy x-rays are emitted in all directions.
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PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
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COMPTON SCATTERING
• In Compton scattering an electron absorbs part of the
energy of the incident x-ray photon.
• In Compton scattering the affected electron is ejected
from the atom and ionisation results.
• The photon energy not absorbed by the electron is
deflected from the original path of the incident photon
as an x-ray of lower energy.
• As the affected atom returns to its base state low
energy x-rays are emitted in all directions.
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COMPTON SCATTERING
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PAIR PRODUCTION
• In pair production a high energy x-ray photon

converts to an electron - positron pair following
interaction with either an orbital electron or an
atomic nucleus.
• Pair production occurs only above a threshold
energy of 1.02 MeV.
• A positron has a very short life expectancy, it
quickly interacts with an electron, causing
ANNIHILATION of both particles.
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PAIR PRODUCTION
• Annihilation of an electron - positron pair produces

scattered radiation at a characteristic photon
energy of 0.51 MeV.
• The electron produced in the pair production event
has high velocity and causes ionisation and further
production of scattered radiation.
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PAIR PRODUCTION
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COHERENT (RAYLEIGH)
SCATTERING
• In coherent scattering there is no loss of photon
energy.
• The incident photon is effectively deflected from its
original path as it interacts with an atom.
• The incident photon is momentarily absorbed by the
atom setting its orbital electrons in oscillation, then re-
emitted without energy loss but in a new direction.
• Coherent scattering affects only very low energy x-ray
photons and is of little importance in industrial
radiography.
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COHERENT (RAYLEIGH)
SCATTERING
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MODE OF SCATTER vs RADIATION
ENERGY
• At radiation energies up to approximately
1 MeV the photoelectric effect is the dominant
scattering mechanism.
• From 1 MeV to approximately 6 MeV Compton
scattering predominates.
• Above 6 MeV pair production takes over as the
dominant effect.
• The total amount of scattering as a proportion of
the incident radiation is much greater at energies
below 1 MeV than it is at higher energies.
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Scatter
• Internal scatter originating within the specimen
• Side scatter walls and nearby objects in the path

of the primary beam
• Back scatter materials located behind the film
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Scatter
• Internal scatter originating within the specimen
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Scatter
• Side scatter - walls and nearby objects in the path
of the primary beam
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Scatter
• Back scatter - materials located behind the film
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CHECKING FOR BACK
SCATTER
• British, European and American codes and
standards describe a method of checking for
back scatter.
• A lead letter ‘B’ is attached to the back of the
film cassette during exposure.
• If a light image of the letter ‘B’ appears in the
radiographic image then excessive back scatter
is present and the radiograph must be retaken.
• A dark image of ‘B’ does not indicate
backscatter!!!
CHECKING FOR
BACKSCATTER
Scattering Angle
• The angle formed between the direction of
the primary radiation beam and the direction
of travel of the scattered radiation is referred
to as “SCATTERING ANGLE” or “ANGLE OF
SCATTER”.
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Scattering Angle
• Scattered radiation with a scattering angle of

less than or equal to 90 is SIDE SCATTER
or INTERNAL SCATTER.
• Scattered radiation with a scattering angle of
greater than 90 is BACK SCATTER.
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SCATTER
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Control of Scatter
• Collimation
• Lead screens
• Protection from back scatter
• Beam filtration (x-ray only)
• Blocking
• Diaphragms
• Grids (oscillating)
• Increased beam energy
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Radiation Safety
Principles
• Justification
• Optimization ALARP
• Limitation
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Measuring Radiation
WAVELENGTH: New: Nanometers (nm) 1nm = 10-9
Old: Angstroms (Å) 1Å = 10-10 m
RADIATION EXPOSURE: New: Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)

Old: Roentgen
ABSORBED DOSE: New: Gray (Gy)

1 Gy = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rad 100 rads = 1 Gy
BIOLOGICAL EFFECT: New: Sievert (Sv)

1 Sv = 1 joule/kilogram
Old: Rem 100 rems = 1 Sv
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Radiation Safety
Units of Dose
• Gray • Quality Factor
The amount of radiation The degree of biological

that will deposit 1 joule damage caused by a
of energy/kg of quantity of radiation
absorber
Sievert: Radiobiological effectiveness

Grays x QF
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Radiation Safety
• QUALITY FACTORS:
• X or gamma rays: QF = 1
• Beta particles: QF > 1
• Alpha particles: QF = 20
• PENETRATING POWER:
• X or gamma: 600 mm of steel
• Beta particles: sheet of paper / layer of skin
• Alpha particles: less than 1 cm of air.
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Radiation Safety
Safe Working
• Controlled Area
Any area in which the

dose will exceed 3/10th
annual dose for
employees aged 18 or
over
7.5mSvh-1: maximum
dose rate at the barrier
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Radiation Safety
Safe Working
• Controlled Area • Supervised Area
Any area in which the Any area in which the

dose will exceed 3/10th dose rate will exceed
annual dose for 1/3rd that of controlled
employees aged 18 or area
over
7.5mSvh-1: maximum
dose rate at the barrier
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Prefixes Definition Symbol
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
102 Hecto h
10 Deca da
10-1 Deci d
10-2 Centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 Micro µ
10-9 Nano n
10-12 pico p
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Inverse Square Law
D1
D2
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Radiation Safety
Calculating Safe Distances
D1  2
 R1  D2   R2
2
D1= Original Distance

D2= Required Distance
R1= Original Dose Rate
R2= Required Dose Rate
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Radiation Safety
D1  2
 R1  D2   R2
2
D2 
D1  2
 R1
R2
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Radiation Safety
D2 
D1 2
 R1
R2
Dose Rate at 1m (ALSO CALLED OUTPUT)
• Co 60 13 mGy/hr/Ci
• Ir 192 4.8 mGy/hr/Ci
• Yb 169 1.25 mGy/hr/Ci
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Radiation Safety
Calculating Safe Distances:
e.g. For 20 Ci of Co60
D2 
1 13mGy / hr / Ci  20Ci 1000 1
7.5m Sv/hr
Safe Distance = 186.2m
Example: 1 In making an isotope exposure in an unshielded
area, you find the dose rate 10 feet from the
source is 600mr/h. What would be the dose rate
at 36 feet?
Example: 2 An emergency is when an unshielded isotope

emits 6.4 msv/h at the barriers at 45m distance.
What will be the exposure at 1m?
Example: 3 Determine the intensity of radiation at a

distance of 1m if a survey meter reveals 0.02
mr/h at 35m.
Example: 4 An unshielded isotope source gives a dosage

rate of 1500 mR/h at 50 feet. What would the
unshielded dosage rate at 100 feet?
Revision 0
Inverse Square Law Answers
Question 1 I₁ = 600 mR/h D₁ = 10 ft
I₂ = ? D₂ = 36 ft
2
I₂ = 10 2 X 600
2
I₂ = D₁ 2 X I1
D₂ 36
Answer I2 = 46.3 mr/h
Question 2 I1 = 6.4 µsv/h D1 = 45m
I2 = ? D2 = 1m
2 2
I2 = D12 X I1 I2 = 452 X 6.4
D2 1
Answer I2 = 12960µsv/h
Question 3 I1 = 0.02 mr/h D1 = 35m
I2 = ? D2 = 1m
2 2
I 2 = D1 2 X I1 I1 = 352 X 0.02
D2 1
Answer I2 = 24.5 mr/h
Question 4 I1 = 1500 mR/h D1 = 50 ft
I2 = ? D2 = 100 ft
Answer I2 = 375 mr/h 2
I2 = 50 2 X 1500
2
I2 = D12 X I1
D2 100
Shielding
• The intensity of radiation is reduced by
absorption as is passes through matter
Half Value Layer/Thickness.

The thickness of any material that
will reduce the radiation intensity to
one half its initial value
Revision 0
Shielding - Half Value layers
I = shielded dose rate

I₀ = the unshielded dose
rate
t = the thickness of shielding
material
HVL = the half value layer
Revision 0
Shielding - Tenth Value layers
I = shielded dose rate

I₀ = the unshielded dose
rate
t = the thickness of shielding
material
TVL = the tenth value layer
Revision 0
HVL CALCULATION
The dose rate at 20
meters from an
unshielded Ir192
source is 256µSv/hr.
the half value layer of
steel is about 10 mm.
what is the thickness of
steel shielding will
reduce the dose rate at
20 meters to 8µSv/hr? Answer: t = 50mm
Revision 0
Radiation Safety
Personnel
• RPA: Radiation Protection Advisor
• RPS: Radiation Protection Supervisor
• Classified Persons
• Trainee
• Others
Revision 0
Radiation Safety
Monitoring
• Ionisation Chamber
• Geiger Muller Tube
• Scintillation Counter
• Film badge
• Thermo-Luminescent Dosimeter (TLD)
• Quartz Fibre Electroscope
• Audible Monitors (personal monitor)
SURVEY METERS
• Survey meters produce a reading of the current
dose rate, usually in mSv/h or mSv/h.
• Three types are used in industrial radiography:
GEIGER COUNTERS
IONISATION CHAMBERS
SCINTILLATION COUNTERS
SURVEY METERS
• For the detection of X or gamma radiation Geiger Counters
are usually used.
• Geiger counters are effectively high voltage ionisation
chambers.
• They are designed to produce pulses of current when
exposed to radiation.
• The number of pulses produced can be related to the
radiation dose rate.
• Geiger counters are more compact and more durable than
standard ionisation chambers and have a wider
measurement range.
SURVEY METERS
• Ionisation Chamber
When the gas is
ionised a current
can flow through
the chamber.
The magnitude of
the current is
related to the
intensity of
ionising radiation.
AMMETER
Revision 0
SURVEY METERS
• Scintillation counters are extremely sensitive to low levels
of radiation.
• They useful for checking for contamination.
• A scintillation counter uses a phosphor which flashes in
the light spectrum when exposed to ionising radiation.
• Flashes of light are detected by a photomultiplier tube.
• Different phosphors are used for different applications: e.g.
sodium iodide for X and gamma ray detection or zinc
sulphide for alpha particles
Revision 0
RADIATION DOSE MONITORING
• Quartz fibre electroscopes, film badges,
thermo-luminescent dosimeters and some
types of personal monitor are all devices for
measuring total radiation dose over a period
of time.
• TLDs use a Lithium Fluoride phospor.
• When exposed to ionising radiation LiF stores
energy which is later released as flashes of
light when the phosphor is heated.
Welding Terminology
Butt Joints Square Edged
Closed Open
Single Sided Butt

Vee Bevel
Double Sided Butt

Vee Bevel
Revision 0
Welding Terminology
Fillet Joints
Tee Lap
Corner
Revision 0
A Weld : Definitions
BS 499 NASA
• A union between pieces • A continuous defect
of metal at faces surrounded by parent
rendered plastic or material
liquid by heat,pressure
or both.
Revision 0
Welds
An ideal weld must give a strong bond between
materials with the interfaces disappearing
To achieve this
• Smooth,flat or matching surfaces
• Surfaces shall be free from contaminants
• Metals shall be free from impurities
• Metals shall have identical crystalline structures
Revision 0
Welding
A union between pieces of metal at faces rendered
plastic or liquid by heat,pressure or both.
BS 499
Possible energy sources

•Ultrasonics
•Electron beam
•Friction
•Electric resistance
•Electric arc
Revision 0
Electric Arc Welding
Electrode
Power
supply
Work piece
Clamp(Earth)
Revision 0
• Electric discharge produced between cathode and
anode by a potential difference (40 to 60 volts)
• Discharge ionises air and produces -ve electrons and

+ve ions
• Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon cathode
• Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to heat

(7000o C) and light
• Amperage controls number of ions and electrons,

Voltage controls their velocity
Revision 0
Arc Welding Processes
• Manual metal arc
• Tungsten Inert Gas
• Metal Inert Gas
• Submerged Arc
Differences between them:
• Methods of shielding the arc

• Consumable or Non-consumable electrode
• Degree of automation
Revision 0
Zones in Fusion Welds
• Parent Material or Base Metal

• Heat Affected Zone
• Fusion Zone
Revision 0
Manual Metal Arc Welding
• Shielding provided by Welder controls

decomposition of flux • Arc length
covering • Angle of electrode
• Electrode consumable • Speed of travel
• Manual process • Amperage settings
Revision 0
Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
Consumable
electrode
Flux
Arc
coating
Evolved gas shield
Slag Core wire
Parent metal
Weld metal
Revision 0
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Gas nozzle
Non-
Filler wire consumable
tungsten
electrode
Gas shield
Arc
Parent metal Weld metal

Revision 0
Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Gas nozzle Reel feed
Consumable electrode
(filler wire)
Gas shield
Arc
Parent metal Weld metal

Revision 0
Submerged Arc
Flux Consumable
retrieval electrode
Reel feed
Slag Flux feed
Weld metal Revision 0

Parent metal
Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by Shape Classified by Position
• Longitudinal •HAZ
• Transverse •Centreline
•Crater
• Branched •Fusion zone
• Chevron •Parent metal
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Cracks
4 Crack Types
• Solidification cracks
• Hydrogen induced cracks
• Lamellar tearing
• Reheat cracks
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Cracks
Solidification
• Occurs during weld solidification process
• Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility at elevated
temperature)
• Requires high tensile stress
• Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
• e.g. Crater cracking
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Solidification Cracking
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Cracks
Hydrogen Induced
• Requires susceptible grain structure, stress and hydrogen
• Hydrogen enters via welding arc
• Hydrogen source - atmosphere or contamination of
preparation or electrode
• Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
• Most likely in HAZ
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Hydrogen Cracking
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
• Step like appearance
• Occurs in parent material or HAZ
• Only in rolled direction of the parent material
• Associated with restrained joints subjected to through
thickness stresses on corners, tees and fillets
• Requires high sulphur or non-metallic inclusions
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Lamellar Tearing
Restraint
High
contractional
stress
Lamellar tear
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Cracks
Re-Heat Cracking
• Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels during post weld
heat treatment or service at elevated temperatures
• Occurs in areas of high stress and existing defects
• Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor profile
material selection and controlled post weld heat treatment
Revision 0
Transverse crack Longitudinal crack
Welding Defects
Incomplete root penetration
Causes
• Too large or small a root gap
• Arc too long
• Wrong polarity
• Electrode too large for joint
preparation
• Incorrect electrode angle
• Too fast a speed of travel for
current
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Incomplete root Fusion
Causes
• Too small a root gap
• Arc too long
• Wrong polarity
• Electrode too large for joint
preparation
• Too fast a speed of travel for
current Revision 0
Weld Root Defects
Lack of root fusion Lack of root Penetration
Lack of root penetration Lack of root fusion
Welding Defects
Root concavity
Causes
• Root gap too large
• Insufficient arc energy
• Excessive back purge TIG
Revision 0
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
 Loss or insufficient back

purging gas
 Most commonly occurs

when welding stainless
steels
 Purging gases include

argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen
Welding Defects
Excess Root Penetration
Causes
• Excessive amperage during welding of root
• Excessive root gap (poor fit up)
• Excessive root grinding
• Improper welding technique
Revision 0
Concave root Excess root penetration
CopyrightWorld Centre
© 2003 for Materials Joining Technology
TWI Ltd M.S.Rogers
Copyright © 2006, TWI Ltd
Welding Defects
Root undercut
Causes
• Root gap too large
• Excessive arc energy
• Small or no root face
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Cap Undercut
Causes
• Excessive welding current
• Welding speed too high
• Excessive weave
• Electrode too large
Revision 0
Root undercut Cap undercut
World©Centre
Copyright forLtd
2003 TWI Materials Joining Technology Copyright © 2006,M.S.Rogers
TWI Ltd
Welding Defects
Lack of fusion
Causes
• Contaminated weld preparation
• Amperage too low
• Amperage too high (welder increases speed of travel)
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Incompletely Filled Groove
& Lack of Side wall Fusion
• Causes
• Insufficient weld metal deposited
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Inter run Incompletely Filled Groove
Causes
• Insufficient weld metal deposited
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Gas pores / Porosity
Causes
• Excessive moisture in flux or preparation
• Contaminated preparation
• Low welding current
• Arc length too long
• Damaged electrode flux
• Removal of gas shield
Revision 0
Gas Cavities
Gas pore <1.5mm Blow hole.>1.6mm
Gas pore Cluster porosity
Blow hole
Herringbone porosity
Root piping
Gas Cavities
Porosity
Root piping
Cluster porosity Herringbone porosity
Welding Defects
Inclusions - Slag
Causes
• Insufficient cleaning between passes
• Contaminated weld preparation
• Welding over irregular profile
• Incorrect welding speed
• Arc length too long
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Inclusions - Tungsten
Causes
• Contamination of weld Caused by tungsten touching weld
metal or parent metal during welding using the TIG welding
process
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Burn Through
Causes
• Excessive amperage during welding of root
• Excessive root grinding
Revision 0
Weld Root Defect
Burn Through
Crater Pipe
Weld crater
Crater pipe
Crater Pipe
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas
defect, it has the appearance of a gas pore in the
weld crater
Crater cracks  Too fast a cooling

(Star cracks) rate
 Deoxidization
reactions and liquid
to solid volume
change
Crater pipe
 Contamination
Welding Defects
Spatter
Causes
• Excessive arc energy
• Excessive arc length
• Damp electrodes
• Arc blow
Revision 0
Welding Defects
Arc Strikes
Causes
• Electrode straying onto

parent metal
• Electrode holder with poor

insulation
• Poor contact of earth clamp
Revision 0
Weld Profile Defects
Poor stop/starts
Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove
Set-up Irregularities
Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment

(Hi-Lo)
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees
Angular Misalignment
Linear Misalignment
Linear Misalignment
Welding Defects
Mechanical Damage
Chisel
Chisel Marks
Marks Pitting Corrosion Grinding Marks
Revision 0
Duties of a radiographic interpreter
 Mask of any unwanted light from viewer
 Ensure the background light is subdued
 Check the radiograph for correct identification
 Assess the radiographs density
 Calculate the radiographs sensitivity
 Check the radiograph for any artifacts
 Assess the radiograph for any defects present
 State the action to be taken, acceptable, rejectable or
repair
Revision 0
Interpretation of Radiographs
Radiographic Details
Source of 150 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7

Radiation
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 450
Technique SWSI Development Standard
TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Name:
Joe Bloggs Date:
01/01/01
Reference No. 097-200 Material Carbon Steel
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 10

Thickness
Process SMAW
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter N/A
Revision 0
Film Density (a) Weld (b) Parent

1.4 Material
2.7
IQI Type No. of wires or steps visible
None N/ A
Sensitivity calculation in full
N/ A
The film density is less than 2.0. No IQ I present. No

identification or location markers present. A reshoot is
required.
Revision 0
Revision 0
1. Crater crack, 85 from datum 3 long

2. Tool mark, 90 from datum.
3. Undercut, 125 from datum, 35 long (intermittent).
4. Wormholes & porosity, 145 from datum, 30 long.
Revision 0
Radiographic Details
Source of 180 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7

Radiation
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 400
Technique DWSI Development Standard

TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01

Reference No. 097-201 Material Carbon Steel
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 8

Thickness
Process SMAW
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter 324 mm
Revision 0
Film Density (a) Weld (b) Parent

1.2 Material
1.7
IQI Type No. of wires or steps visible
10ISO 16 2
Sensitivity calculation in full
0.32/ 8 x 100 = 4%
The film density is less than 2.0. The sensitivity is greater than
2%. No identification or location markers present. The IQI is
cannot be properly identified. A reshoot is required.
Revision 0
Revision 0
1. Suspected LORF, difficult to interpret due to thickness

change. 0 - 75 mm.
2. Porosity. Datum + 120, 45 mm long.
3. Lack of penetration, 2 sections 110-130
& 145-168mm
4. Undercut (cap), intermittent full length, both weld
toes.
Revision 0
1. Transverse crack (probably caused by Cu pick-up.

2. Scattered pores / wormholes & small slag
inclusions.
3. Intermittent minor cap undercut.
Revision 0
1. Linear porosity indicating lack of fusion.
Revision 0
1. Tungsten Inclusion.
Revision 0
1. Lack of fusion.
2. Cap undercut.
3. Dense metal inclusions.
Revision 0
1. Linear slag inclusions indicating lack of

fusion.
2. Weld spatter.
Revision 0
1. Crack, probably solidification crack.
Revision 0
1. Lack of root penetration.

2. Burn through.
3. Undercut.
4. Uneven penetration bordering excessive,
full length. Revision 0
What is a good radiograph?
A good radiograph satisfies

the inspection requirement

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What are some certification schemes mentioned?

What are some certification schemes mentioned?

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What are the course objectives mentioned?

Radiographic Inspection

• EN 473 • ASNT ( SNTC – 1A )

30 mins  Theory: Radiographic sector specific theory 20

 Metal Group B: Austenitic 6 Radiographs

 Metal Group D: Copper 3 Radiographs

45 mins  Theory: Radiographic sector specific theory 30

6 radiographs ‘Light metal welds’ Group comprising of:

Radiographic Testing (RT)

X - Rays Gamma Rays

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

Radiographic film Test specimen

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

Fluorescent Thick,dark Thin, light

• Travels at the speed of light.

X & GAMMA RAYS

ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A)

• Some isotopes are stable, others are not.

• Half Life Time taken for the activity of

Cobalt 60 5.3 years

• Gamma rays are produced from

Some isotopes are stable others are not

Long Wavelength  Short

X-Rays are produced form electrical

99 % will changed into

Higher velocity electron

Higher velocity electron

Focusing cup concentrates

• Electrons travel for only short distances

• Tube voltage controls

The effect of a.c. on the direction of current flow.

In the half wave rectified circuit the anode is

The introduction of separate rectifiers into the

•High output/unit time •More commonly used on site

•100% duty cycle •More robust

•Shorter exposure times •Portable/lighter

•Bulky equipment •Low output/unit time

•Expensive •Longer exposure times

FOCAL SPOT 250 mm

LEAD SHEET ~ 4 mm W.T.

LARGEST IMAGE DEVELOPED FILM

Measurement of the longest linear dimension of the image

• X-Ray energies of up to 30 MeV are produced using “linear

1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into metallic

Un-sensitised : Stable Sensitised : Unstable

During exposure a “latent image” is formed by

Coarse Fast Poor

Medium Medium Medium

Fine Slow Good

Ultra Fine V.Slow V.Good

• The optimum thickness of such screens varies with radiation energy

• The front screen reduces the effect of radiation scattered by objects

• The back screen reduces the effect of radiation scattered by objects

• Metal Usually Pb - Intensification factor about

Lead Electrons -ve