Submodule 7.

Tools
 Common Hand Tools
• Maintenance of aircraft requires the engineer to have
a reasonable degree of skill in the use of hand tools.
• This skill can only be achieved by practice with the
correct type of tool for the task.
• Best results are obtained when the tool being used is
at its most efficient, such as:
• A correctly aligned hacksaw blade, at the right frame
tension used at the optimum angle when cutting.
• Care and maintenance of hand tools is important to
ensure tools efficiency is not impaired.
 Engineers Rule
• Made from high carbon steel.
• Graduated in Metric, Imperial or a combination.
• Classified by length and width of the graduated
portion.
• Must be kept free from rust and not mis-used to
ensure accuracy in service.
• Most common lengths in normal use are 150 mm (6”)
and 300 mm (12”).
• Some departments may require a rule of up to 1800
mm (6 ft) in length.
 Scriber
• Made from high carbon steel and classified by length.
• Used to mark lines on metal surfaces.
• One end is bent at right angles to allow scribing in
restricted areas.
• Scribe lines damage soft materials and should be
removed during finishing to avoid stress raisers.
• Point can be sharpened by stoning, but not grinding
as the high generated heat will make them soft.
• Sharp ends should kept in cork to protect them from
becoming blunt and protect us from being stabbed!
 Key Seat Rule
Graduated
Key Seat Rule
Round Bar

Scriber

• Classified by length and usually graduated.

• Also known as Box Squares.
• Used on round bars or tubes for marking off lines parallel
to the axis
 Fitters or Engineers Square
• Made from high carbon steel to very fine limits and
classified by the length of the blade.

• Blade and stock have their opposing edges ground

truly parallel with the two parts at exactly 90°.

• Used to mark lines at right angles to an edge or

surface.

• When not in use it should be kept in a protective case

to preserve its accuracy.
 Testing a Fitters Square
• A square can be checked for ‘truth’ by using an
accurately machined right angle.
• Normal to use a Vee block or master square but if
they are not available then:
a. Place stock against a true edge of a flat surface
b. Scribe a line using outside edge of blade
c. Turn square over and check outside edge against
the previously scribed line.
• If the square is accurate the scribed line will be in
line with the blade.
 Testing a Fitters Square

True Edge

Error
 Combination Set
• Consists of four pieces:

1. Graduated steel rule.

2. Square head

3. Centre head.

4. Protractor head
Continued...
 Spirit level sometimes
The square head has a 90° located in the square
and 45° working surface head to permit accuracy
when the rule is correctly checks to be done.
secured.

Steel rule has a machined groove

along its length to allow it to be
secured in the set.
Continued...
Centre head is used
with the rule to locate
centre lines of bars or
round tubes.

Protractor head When secured to the

can be used as an rule it can be used to
inclinometer. mark out and check
work piece angles.

End
 Surface Plates and Tables
• Surface tables are free standing and surface plates
are usually positioned on a work bench.
• Made form grey cast iron with finely machined faces.
• Accuracy of a table depends on what it is used for.
• Surfaces are available in three grades, which depend
on the flatness or smoothness of the surface.

1. Grade A used in standards rooms.

2. Grade B used for inspection work.
3. Grade C used in workshops.

Continued...
• Surface plates are supported at three points, which
enables it to be correctly adjusted in all directions.

Three adjusting feet

(third foot not shown)

• Engineers blue and V blocks are used with the surface

to establish flatness and correct angles of components.

End
 V Blocks
• Accurately machined six sided block, with a groove
along its centre, usually made from cast iron.
• The groove is set at 90° and has a square cut
clearance groove at the bottom of the V.
• All opposite sides of the blocks are parallel, and all
adjacent faces are square to each other.
• Made as an identifiable matched pair, and must
always be used together.
• V blocks are classified by the maximum diameter of
the work they can hold.
 V Block - Matched Pairs

2058
2058
Clearance All Right
Groove Matched Pair Angles are
Identification exactly 90°
Numbers
 Surface Gauge
• Surface gauge or scribing block used in conjunction
with a scriber to mark accurate lines.
• Consists of a heavy cast iron base, adjustable spindle
with arm and a securing device.
• The base is machined to be as flat as the surface
plate or table on which it moves.
• The spindle has a fine control mechanism for
accurate movement of the arm.
• The securing device is used to hold a standard
scriber.
• Can also be used with a Dial Test Indicator (DTI).
 Surface Gauge
Plate being
Support Scribed
Plate

Surface Block
Surface Gauge
 Dividers
• Used to set distances and scribe arcs or circles.

• Classified by the length of their legs.

• Legs are made from high carbon steel, spring from

spring steel and adjusting mechanism of mild steel.

• Sharpened points need protecting and can be stoned

to re-sharpen them.

• Again, should not be sharpened on a grinder as this

will draw the temper and make points soft.
 Callipers
• A type of measuring device used to measure
diameters, distances and to compare sizes.

• Three basic types are:

1. Outside Callipers

2. Inside Callipers

3. Odd-Leg Callipers (Hermaphrodite or Jenny)

 Callipers

Outside Inside Odd-Leg

 Hammers
• Classified by weight and type of head.
• Steels heads are forged from high-carbon steel.
• Most handles are made from straight grained Ash or
Hickory and secured by a wedge shaped pin.
• The correct weight of hammer for each task can only
be found with experience.
• Before use the head should be checked to ensure it
is secured to the handle.
• Proper control can only be kept by gripping the
handle as far from the head as possible.
 Pein Type Hammers
The flat faces of all
three hammers can be
Ball Pein
used for general work.
Ball pein used for rivet
type work.
Straight
Pein Straight and Cross pein
used to access recessed
areas that ball pein
cannot reach.
Cross
Pein Straight and Cross pein
heads set at 90° to
each other.
 Soft Hammers
Copper and Hide faces
enable heavy blows with
little or no damage to the
work surface.
Copper and Hide Rubber and Plastic also
Hide Face Face reduce damage to surface
being struck.
Rubber and Plastic are the
more common type.
Plastic faced hammers have
replaceable striking faces
Plastic Rubber which screw into position.
Face Head
 Punches

• Punches allow the force of a hammer blow to be

concentrated into the small area of the punch tip.

• This increases the pressure at the tip compared to

the hammer blow without the punch.

• PPE - Eye protection and possibly gloves.

 Punch Maintenance
• In time the punch head will deform into a mushroom
shape, and chips could fly off causing injury.

Deformation
of head

• This deformation must be removed, usually by use of

a bench grinder.

Cleaned
head
 Types of Punches

• Common types of punches in general use are:

1. Centre Punches (also known as Dot Punch)

2. Pin Punches

3. Hollow Punches

4. Drifts
 Punches - General
• Centre, pin and hollow punches are usually made
from hexagonal or round rods of tempered cast steel.

• They are approximately 120mm (5”) in length with

diameter of the smaller driving end to suit the task.

• Only steel drifts should be used to drive out bearings

as chips of soft metal may break off and foul bearing.

• Drifts are made from aluminium alloy, copper or steel

and are sized to suit the task.
 Centre Punches
• Centre punches used to make indentations in metals.
• Assists in locating the centre of a hole and starting a
drill bit when drilling a hole.
• The point is ground to between 60° (Dot Punch) and
90°, depending on hardness of metal being struck.

Used on Used on
Harder Softer
Materials Materials
60° 90°
Point Point
 Punch Tip Maintenance
Care must be taken when cleaning or sharpening
the pointed end of a punch on a bench grinder.

Excessive heat can draw the temper hardening

form the metal and leave it soft.

Point should And not at

be ground in right angles
line with the as this will
shaft. make the
point weak.
 Pin Punches
• Used to remove pins, rivets and similar items such as
piano or wire hinges.

• Driving end is cut flat and is available in a variety of

diameter sizes to suit the task.

• Driving end can be parallel or tapered.

Flat End Parallel or Tapered Shank

 Hollow Punches
• Used to punch out holes in soft materials that are
difficult to drill without damaging.
• Typical materials being shim stock steel.
• Material being cut should be supported by a wooden
block or similar to avoid damage to the cutting edge
of the punch.
Hollow Punch
Wood
Support Striking
Force
Metal
Cutting edge
being cut
 Cold Chisels
• Metal cutting chisels are forged from lengths of
hexagonal section high-carbon steel bar.
• Can also be made from nickel-alloy steel and specially
heat treated to produce a long-lasting cutting edge.
• The cutting edge is hardened and tempered, but the
striking end is softer to prevent chips flying off during
use.
 Chisel Maintenance
• In time the chisel head will deform into a mushroom
shape, and chips could fly off causing injury.

Deformation
of head

• This deformation must be removed, usually by use of

a bench grinder.

Cleaned
head
 Cold Chisels
• Classified by their shape, overall length, cross section
of shank and width of cut.
• Four principle shapes in general use:

1. Flat
2. Cross-Cut
3. Diamond-Point
4. Half-Round
 Flat Chisel
• Flat chisels used for general
chipping work such as parting
metal sheets.
• The cutting edge is formed slightly
convex.

Cross-Cut Chisel
• Cross-Cut (or Cape) chisel is
narrow flat chisel.
• Used to cut narrow, flat-bottomed
grooves such as key-ways, and to
remove of heads of round headed
rivets during repair.
Diamond Chisel
• Diamond chisels used for cutting
into corners.
• Good for cutting small oil grooves
and rectifying an incorrect start
when drilling.

Half-Round Chisel
• Half-Round (or round) chisel is a
general purpose grooving chisel.
• Suitable for cutting half-round
bottomed grooves and rectifying
an incorrect start when drilling.
Chisels Cutting Angles

Rake

Cutting Angle

Inclination

Clearance
 Chisels Cutting Angles
• Chisel angles depend on material being cut.

• Suggested angles are as follows:

Material Type Point Angle Inclination Angle

Hard Steels: 70° 40°

Mild Steels: 60° 35°
Soft Metals: 40° 30°
 Bench Vice
• Bench Vice used to clamp work securely when being
worked.
• Operation of jaws via a square or buttress thread.
• The better types of bench vice have a quick release
mechanism to allow rapid opening and closing.
• Lever near the tommy bar operates this mechanism.
• Move the lever to disengage a half nut from the
threaded shaft, so it can slide past the threaded nut.
• A strong spring re-engages the nut halves when the
lever is released.

Continued...
• The ideal height of the vice for comfortable working
is level with the technician’s elbow.
• This will allow better control of the hand tools and
make the work less tiring.
• Vice must be firmly secured to a bench at all times.
• Screws should be kept clean and lubricated.
• Over tightening the jaws may distort the work being
clamped and could damage the mechanism.
• Soft materials are protected by soft jaws or clams.
• Special holding devices used to secure objects such
as round pipes or bar.

Continued...
Soft Jaws or Clams

Detachable Steel Jaws

Screw thread
inside to open
and close jaws.

Tommy Bar
Bench Securing Bolt

End
 Hand Vice

Clamped Work Spring

Screw Thread Wing Nut

• Used to hold small objects being worked and

classified by overall length.
• Body and screw thread made from mild steel.
• Wing nut provides the clamping force.
 Hacksaws
• Consists of a mild steel frame with suitable handle
and a replaceable serrated blade made from high-
carbon steel or alloy steel.
• The number of teeth per inch (TPI) on the blade
depends on the thickness and type of material being
cut.
• Coarse blades have 14 or 18 TPI and are used to cut
thicker material. (Alternative tooth setting)
• Fine blades have 24 or 32 TPI and are used to cut
thin materials. (Wave tooth setting)
 Hacksaw Blades
• Blade must be fitted with the teeth facing away from
the handle to allow a more efficient cutting action.
• Apply hand pressure on the forward stroke only and
use the full length of the blade for each stroke, if this
is possible.
• This should prolong blade life and reduce chances of
blade jam during use.
• Blade teeth are ‘set’ alternately left and right during
manufacture.
• This produces a slot or ‘kerf’ that is wider than the
blade width, again to reduce jamming during use.
 Thin Section Materials

Hacksaw Blade
24 - 32 TPI

At least two teeth in

contact at all times
Thin Pipe
 Thick Section Materials

Hacksaw Blade
14 -18 TPI

Lots of teeth in
contact.
Thick Section
 Blade Set

Plan View of
Blade Set

Teeth Set
Alternates Left
Cutting Slot and Right
or Kerf
 Shears and Snips
• Tinman’s Shears or Aviation Snips are two of the
common names used.
• These are basically large scissors capable of cutting
sheet metal.
• The metal is cut to a rough size and hand finished to
the correct dimensions.
• They vary in length from 175 - 300 mm and can cut
the material in straight lines or on a curved radius.
• Curved shears cut either left or right radii and are
colour coded on their handles.
• Red for Left Green for Right.
 Files
• Files are cutting tools used for removing metal from
the surface.
• Made from high-carbon steel with a hardened blade
and softer but tougher tang.
• Handle can be wood or similar such as plastic.
• Classified by:
1. Length
2. Shape (Plan view of the blade)
3. Cross-Section (End view of the blade)
4. Cut (Arrangement of the cutting teeth)
5. Grade (Depth and spacing of the cutting teeth)
 File Terminology
Tip Shoulder

Length Tang
• Length measured from shoulder to tip.
• Available in various lengths.
• Most common lengths 150, 200 and 250 mm.
• Special lengths usually range 75 to 350 mm.
 File Shapes

Parallel

Tapered

Bellied
 File Cross-Sections

Hand Round Half- Square Three-

Round Square
 File Cross-Sections
• Hand section is parallel in shape, and most commonly
used for general filing.
• One edge has no teeth to allow safe work up to a
finished face, known as a ‘Hand Safe Edge’.
• Round section with a bellied, parallel or tapered
shape suitable for filing small radii.
• Half-round with bellied shape for filing large internal
radii or work of irregular shape.
• Square section, again with a bellied, parallel or
tapered shape suitable for internal work.
• Three-Square is a triangular section usually with a
bellied shape, useful for internal corners.
 Single and Double Cut
• Single Cut has teeth cut parallel
usually at 60° to the main axis of the
60° blade in a single direction.
• The open teeth pattern helps to
reduce clogging during use.
Single
Cut • Round and curved files are normally
single cut.

• Double Cut is basically a single cut

75° 60° with another cut at approximately
right-angles to the first.
Double • Most common type for general
Cut purpose filing.
 Dreadnought and Rasp

• Dreadnought used mainly for heavy

cutting on soft metals.
• Generally restricted to larger sizes of
Dreadnought flat files.

• Rasp teeth are formed by punching

a triangular shape hole in the file.
• Used for very soft materials such as
wood and leather.
Rasp
 File Grades
• The grade of a file is the depth and spacing of the
cutting teeth.
• It is a files degree of coarseness and so determines
the finish and rate of cutting.
• There are a several grades available, the most
common being Bastard, Second-Cut and Smooth.
• Bastard is a coarse grade with approximately 30 TPI
used for roughing out to approximate size.
• Second-Cut is finer with about 40 TPI, gives better
finish but is slower cutting.
• Smooth has 50 to 60 TPI to give good finish and a
very slow cutting rate.
 Filing Practice
• Proficiency comes with practice and experience.
• Secure work as both hands will be required to file.
• Never use a file without a handle - Puncture wounds!
• Files are hard and will break if dropped.
• Store in separate racks or pocket type hold-all’s.
• Regular cleaning with a scratch card will reduce
clogging and scratches to the work piece.
• Use of chalk will reduce clogging and soak up any oil
which may have contaminated the file.
• Draw-filing will allow very fine finish to be obtained,
at the expense of a very slow cutting speed.
 Hand Brace
• Hand brace or hand drill used to drill holes when a
fixed drill is impractical.
• Used for drilling holes up to 6.5mm  in thin and
relatively soft materials.
• Breast Brace is larger, drill size up to 12mm , with
two running speeds.
Chuck
Handles

Mechanism Chuck
Drive Driving
Mechanism
 Twist Drill Terminology

Land Flute
Point

Presto
1/8”
HSS

Body Shank

Shank has information Presto

such as manufacturer, 1/8”
size and material of drill. HSS
 Twist Drills
• Morse type twist drill is the most commonly used in
general engineering.
• Drills up to 12.5mm  shank is parallel.
• Above 12.5mm  shank has a 1:20 Morse Taper.
• Tapered shank has a tang to allow more positive drive
due to the greater forces felt by larger drills.
• The flute provides a rake angle for the cutting edge of
the drill.
• It also allows any lubricant used in and the cut waste
metal or swarf out.
• The land touches the hole wall to steady the drill
during rotation.
 Drill Point Terminology
Dead Centre

Margin
Web

Body
Clearance

Flute Land
 Drill Point Angles
Web or Point
Angle Helix Angle
115°-135° (Rake)
Inclusive

Cutting Clearance
Angle Angle
59° 12°-15°
Cutting
Edges
 Twist Drill Maintenance
• Worn drills can be re-sharpened to prolong life.

• Drill grinding attachments are available to ensure the

correct angles are achieved when re-sharpening.

• With practice and experience, correct angles can also

be achieved by hand grinding.

• When the hole needs to be of a high standard,

discard the worn drill and replace with a new one.
 Carbon Steel Twist Drills
• Two types of carbon steel drill are Carbon Steel (CS)
and High Speed Steel (HSS).
• Carbon Steel drills alloyed with manganese, silicon,
sulphur and phosphorus with CS stamped on shank.
• High Speed Steel (HSS) drills alloyed with 8-12%
tungsten, 5% chromium and small amounts of
vanadium and molybdenum.
• HSS drills retain their hardness at the high speeds
that produce high temperatures, and are identified by
HSS stamp on the shank.
• HSS drills more expensive but will result in greater
economy over a long period.
 Cobalt Steel Twist Drills
• Cobalt Steel twist drills main alloying elements are
12% cobalt, up to 20% tungsten and 4% chromium.

• Also contains small amounts of vanadium,

molybdenum and carbon.

• These hard drills are used to cut hard materials such

as stainless steel.

• Hardness also means brittleness, so strict observance

of the recommended cutting speeds is important.
 Twist Drill Sizes
• Most common methods of drill sizing are Metric,
Fractions of an Inch and Number/Letter range.
• The sizes indicate the diameter and are usually
marked on the shank.
• The Metric range is commercially available from
0.35mm in increments of 0.05mm up to 5.0mm.
• Above this they increment in 0.1mm steps.
• The Fraction of an Inch range begins at 1/64” and
increments in 1/64” steps up to 1 5/8”.
• Above this they increment in 1/32” steps up to 3”.
 Number/Letter Range
• This method utilises numbers from 80 to 1 and
letters from A to Z.
• The No. 80 size is the smallest this corresponding to
0.35mm .
• The  increases with decreasing numbers until the
No. 1 (5.80mm) size, when the letters take over.
• The next size uses the letter A (5.85mm) and the 
continues to increase until Z (10.50mm) is reached.
• There is no direct relation between the incremental
changes in the number/letter system.
• Measuring device required to identify very small drills
whose size is unreadable to the naked eye.
 Cutting Characteristics
• Use of cutting fluids whilst drilling is very important.
• The standard of finish in the hole is improved due to
the action of the lubricant.
• The fluid also dissipates any heat, generated by the
friction action of the twist drill.
• The recommended fluid will improve the cutting
efficiency and prolong the life of the drill.
• The correct drill speed will also improve the standard
of finish of a hole.
• The required speed depends on the size and type of
material being cut.
 Recommended Cutting Fluids
• Mild Steel - Soluble Oil

• High-Carbon/Alloys Steels - Kerosene or Turpentine

• Aluminium Alloys - Kerosene

• Cast Iron and Brass - No Lubricant (normally)

• If the AMM/CMM/SRM etc. specifies a particular

cutting fluid then that must be used.
 Pilot Drilling
• For holes of < 6mm  the depth of a centre punch
mark will keep the drill aligned until it is established.
• Holes > 6mm  require a pilot hole to be cut before
the finishing  drill size is used.
• If the hole is very large a series of holes may need to
be drilled in progressively larger steps.
• Diameter of pilot drill used should be slightly larger
than the non-cutting point of the finished size drill.
• Cutting fluid (if required) should be used for both
pilot and finishing drills.
 Countersink and Dimple Tools
• Countersinking and Press Countersinking (Dimpling)
are methods of allowing fasteners heads to achieve a
smooth surface finish.
• The countersunk shaped fastener fits flush in the
material hole by either cutting away the material
(countersink) or deforming the material (dimple).
 Cutting or Pressing?
• If the upper surface of the
material is thick enough, then
cutting is usually done.

• If the upper surface of the

material is too thin, then
pressing is the normal method.

• The method used also depends on the manufacturers

recommendations found in the SRM, AMM or CMM.
 Countersinking

• Countersinking can be achieved by using a Standard

(also known as Jobber Countersink) or Stop
Countersinking tool.

• The Standard type have a pre-set angle to suit the

fastener being used (100° is most common).

• The Stop countersink tool has a replaceable cutter

and pilot to suit cutting angle and hole size of work.

Continued...
• Stop countersink tools should be used when a large
number of holes require countersinking and
consistent results are required.

• Standard countersinking tool is normally used when a

small number of hole require countersinking.

• The main body of the stop countersink tool may need

to be held during cutting.

• If it rotates during use it may mark the surface of the

material being cut, even though it is faced with a soft
fibre collar.

Continued...
 Standard Countersink Tool
Cutting
Angle

Interchangeable
100° or Fixed Guide
Drill Chuck (Pilot)
Fitting

Also known as a
Jobber Countersink. Cutter
Face
Continued...
 Stop Countersink Tool
Adjustable
Locknut Stop
Fibre Collar
Face

Pilot
Drill Chuck
Fitting Chip Opening

Continued...
 Exploded Stop Countersink
Cutter
Shaft
Locknut
Adjustable
Drill Chuck Stop
Fitting

Pilot Fibre Collar

Cutter Face

Main Body

Chip Opening
End
 Dimpling
• Two types of dimpling in common use are Coin and
and Radius Dimpling.
• The recess is formed by bending the metal around
the hole inwards, using a set of dimpling dies.

Male Die

Sheets to be
Female Die dimpled
Dimpling

Dimpled Skin

Dimpled skin with

rivet fitted.
 Coin and Radius Dimpling
• Coin dimpling forces the sheets into the lower die
leaving the hole sharply defined with parallel sides.
• The expensive complex die set leaves a neat hole
with smooth sides.
• Radius dimpling uses a male die to drive the sheets
into a female die.
• The sides are not as smooth as coin dimpling but the
operation is quicker and cheaper to achieve.
• Hard metals such as magnesium may need to be
heated before dimpling to reduce chances of cracks
forming, this method is known as ‘Hot Dimpling’.
 Reamers

• Made from high-carbon steel or alloy steel, they are

fluted to provide a series of cutting edges.
• Reamers are used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate
dimensions.
• They achieve a smooth internal finish suitable for
precision ground bolts and special rivet types.
• They can be used by hand or on a drilling machine.
• Machine type utilise a Morse taper shank and are
normally used by machinists only.

Continued...
• Hand type are rotated by a hand wrench drive, that
locates on the square part of the shank.
• They must always be rotated in the direction of
cutting even when withdrawing from the hole.
• Cutting lubricants are the same as those used for
drilling, and will help achieve a smooth finish.
• Reamers should only remove about 0.2 to 0.3mm of
material, so the hole should be drilled accordingly.
• Supplied in protective sheaths to ensure the cutting
edges are preserved when not in use.
• Most common types are Hand Parallel, Hand
Expanding and Hand Taper Reamers.

End
 Parallel Reamers
• These are fixed size parallel bodied reamers with
either a straight or spiral flute.

• Straight fluted are the general purpose reamer.

• Spiral flute type are used when the hole has a

keyway or groove.
 Parallel Reamers

Straight Fluted Reamer

Spiral Fluted Reamer

 Expanding Reamers
• Consists of separate replaceable blades, fitted into
tapered slots and held by two adjustable nuts.

• By moving the position of the nuts the cutting blades

dimensions are changed.

• Used when a parallel reamer of the correct size is

unavailable.

• The actual size set by adjustment can be checked by

using a ring gauge, micrometer or calliper.
Expanding Reamers
The size range of
Adjusting each expanding
Nuts reamer is stamped on
its shank.

HSS
10-20mm
Presto

Square
Blades Drive
 Taper Reamers
• Used to produce tapered holes for the insertion of a
standard taper pin.
• Two types of taper are Metric and Imperial.
• Metric taper is 1:50.
• Imperial taper is 1:48.

HSS
5mm

• Metric size is etched on the shank and refers to its

smallest diameter.
 Imperial Taper Reamers

• Imperial type use either a number system (0 to 10) or

a fractional designation.

• The size is again etched on the shank but refers to its

largest diameter.

• Difference between metric and imperial taper is very

small, but they are incompatible.
 Cutting Taps
• Taps are made from hardened and tempered steel
and have fluted cutting edges.
• They are used to cut internal threads up to about
25mm (1”).
• A square drive protrudes from the shank to enable
turning via a wrench.
• Each size is normally made in sets of three, Taper
Tap, Second Tap and Plug Tap.
• The BA set consists of only two taps, and does not
have a second tap.
 Taper Tap
• Taper Tap is tapered gradually from the tip for about
two-thirds its length.
• Threads on the final third are fully formed.
• This ensures it enters the pre-drilled hole correctly
aligned before cutting commences.

Gradual Full Square

Taper Threads Drive
 Second Tap
• The Second or Intermediate Tap is used to deepen
the thread.
• Tapered for two or three threads only and is capable
of producing a fully finished thread.
• Not available in the BA sets.

2-3 Thread Full

Taper Threads
 Plug Tap
• The Plug or Bottoming Tap has no taper.
• Its purpose is to finish the threads and cut if required
threads to the bottom of a blind hole.

Full Length Threads

 Tapping Preparation
• A hole of the correct diameter must be cut in the
work first.
• This must be the same diameter as the minor
diameter of the thread needing to be cut.
• This information can be found in workshop data
books and charts.
Extract from BSF Tapping Table
Diameter Drill Size Drill Decimal
3/16 5/32 0.1562
7/32 4.65 0.1831
1/4 5.30 0.2087
5/16 6.75 0.2687
 Tapping Preparation
• Alignment of the tap in the hole is important to
achieve a straight thread.
• Taps are very hard and therefore brittle, so an
incorrect alignment may cause it to jam or break off
inside the hole during cutting.
• Removal of a broken tap is very difficult and time
consuming.
• Adequate cutting fluids or compounds should be used
to ensure a smooth thread finish.
• Arms of the tap wrench should be correct length, as
this reduces chances of excessive force being applied.
 Tapping Tips
• Be aware that tapped thread can be left or right
handed.
• Use of an engineers square can help to establish a
well aligned tap when starting the cut.
• Once established rotate tap backwards about half a
turn for each full forward turn, as this helps to break
off cuttings.
• Use the full set of available taps, each time cleaning
old swarf out and applying fresh cutting compound.
• If the tap does break off in the hole specialist
procedures such as spark erosion may be required.
 Die Cutting
• Dies are made from hardened and tempered steel
with internal flutes to form the cutting edges.
• They can be threaded with a left or right hand.
• Used for cutting external (male) threads of relatively
small diameter.
• General use dies have a split in their design to allow
for adjustment when cutting.
• The die is secured into a ‘Stock’ which is the turning
device to allow cutting to take place.
• The stock is also the adjusting method if cutting depth
is to be varied.
 Die and Stock

Split Die
Shoulder

Stock

Outer Securing and

Adjusting Screws
Centre Adjusting
Screw
 Cutting with a Die
• The diameter of rod to be cut must equal the major
diameter of the required thread.

• If the rod is only a fraction smaller than the required

major diameter, the fit will be very loose.

• If a fraction larger the die may be damaged during

cutting. (Remember the die is hard and brittle).

Continued...
• The die is fitted into the stock with its tapered part
away from the shoulder of the stock, and the split
aligned with the centre adjusting screw.

• The centre screw is then tightened to expand the die

slightly.

• Then the two outer adjusting screws can be

tightened to ensure security of the die.

• This ensures that the first cut of the bar is a shallow

one and no excessive loads are placed on the die.

Continued...
• The rod should have a small taper or chamfer on it to
help the die align correctly.

• The same cutting compounds used for tapping

should be applied to the end of the rod.

• Ensuring that the die remains square to the rod, the

stock is rotated in small arcs, again backing off each
time, in the same manner as tapping.

• When the cutting is complete the die can be wound

off, adjusted, and a second slightly deeper cut can be
made if required.

Continued...
• Internally tapped threads are not adjustable, but
externally cut ones are.

• The external thread should always be cut last to

ensure the required degree of fit between the
respective threads is obtained.

End
 Screwdrivers
• Screwdrivers consist of a high-carbon steel or alloy
steel blade, fixed to a wood or composite handle.
• The high-carbon steel blades are also hardened and
tempered.

• They are divided into two main groups:

1. Blade Screwdrivers

2. Cross-Point Screwdrivers
 Blade Screwdrivers

• The end of a blade (or common) screwdriver is

ground to engage the diagonal slot of the screw
head.

• Blade type screwdrivers are classified by type and

length of blade.

• This can range from 35mm (1.5”) to 500mm (20”) in

special cases.
 Blade Engagement
• Using the correct size blade for fastener ensures
proper engagement of the screwdriver into the
fastener head.
• This should avoid serious damage to the fastener and
surrounding structure.

Blade too Blade Blade too

Small Correct Large
 Cross-Point Screwdrivers
• Cross-point screwdrivers are available in many
different types of end.
• They allow a greater torque to be applied to the
fastener.
• The screwdriver end and fastener head must be
compatible to avoid damage.
• Special types such as the ‘off-set’ (cranked)
screwdriver and drivers with interchangeable bits are
also used.
• The handle or drive may be unique but the end blade
or bit must be the correct one for the fastener head.
Reed And Price
Phillips
Posidrive
Triwing
Offset Torque Head

S
A

11
N

02
A
 Pliers
• Pliers are classified by type and overall length and
usually made from alloy steel, with an insulated
handle.

• They are used for gripping and bending components

or moving small items that are difficult to hold.

• Various types are available, the name usually

describing the pliers tip or its function.

• Round-Nose, Flat-Nose, Needle Nose, Side Cutting,

Wire Locking and Circlip.
 Lock Wire and Circlip Pliers
• Wire Locking Pliers are designed specifically for lock
wire tasks, these pliers incorporate:
1. Lockable grip function
2. Integral Archimedes’ Screw for wire twisting.
3. Cutting function to snip wire

• Circlip Pliers are used for the removal and fitting of

internal and external circlips.
• Normally made for internal only or external only
circlips, the better types can be adjusted to fit both
types of circlip.
 Grips and Clamps

• Pliers that can be locked onto a component are

usually known as ‘Mole-Grips’.
• They have a mechanism that allows gripping without
the need to continuously squeeze the handles.

• Slip-Joint (Water Pump or Swan Neck) Pliers have an

adjustable range to the size of the components they
can accommodate.
• This is achieved by the multi-pivot joint at the hinge
part of the pliers.
 Wire Snips

• Wire Snips (or Nippers) are used to cut and strip

wires.
• Aircraft wiring should have its insulation removed
with the correct wire stripping pliers.
• The larger sized ones are useful for removing split
pins.
• The cutting jaws of the small types may be rendered
useless by the tough split pin.
• The cutting jaw is usually positioned either at right-
angles to or parallel with the handles.
 Spanners
• Spanners are usually made from either:
(a) Case Hardened Mild Steel
(b) Hardened and Tempered High-Carbon Steel
(c) Alloy Steels containing Chromium and
Molybdenum.
• The size should be marked on the handle or the jaw
face in unit of measurement for that system.

• The two main sizing methods are:

1. Distance across the jaw opening
2. Distance across the thread diameter
Spanner Sizing Systems

Older British systems such

as Whitworth, measure the
dimension across the
fasteners thread diameter.

Metric and Imperial A/F (Across

Flats) systems measure the
dimension across the fasteners
jaw flats.
 Set or Open Jaw Spanners
• These spanners are usually double-ended allowing two
sizes to be used on each spanner.
• The jaw opening of the set spanner is usually set at an
angle (15°) to make it more versatile in restricted
areas.

15°

• The jaws only bear against two available flats, and if

excessive force is applied, they may spring open.
 Ring Spanners
• Ring spanners give full enclosure and reduce the
problems associated with open-jaw spanners.
• Ring spanner internal faces are usually bi-hexagonal,
again to allow more versatility.
• The ends are usually offset or cranked downwards at
about 60° from the handle giving greater flexibility.

Offset or
Cranked at
about 60°

Continued...
 Flat Ring Spanners
• Flat ring spanners can be used in areas where access
is difficult with a normal cranked ring spanner.
• The shape of the spanner is usually either straight or
crescent shaped.

Continued...
 Flare Nut Spanners
• Flare nut spanners combine the best of both ring and
set spanners.
• This spanner allows an increased force to be applied
to pipe unions without slipping.
• The end sections are much thicker to compensate for
a loss of rigidity because of the open end.

Ring spanner Thicker section

with an open at ends
end.

End
 Sockets
• Sockets are just versatile spanners and are made
from the same materials as spanners.
• The faces that turn the fastener are either six or
twelve sided, with a square hole for applying force.
• The turning force can be achieved by a variety of
methods such as T-bars and ratchet handles.
• The drive size range form ¼” to 1½” with the 3/8”
being the most popular with aircraft engineers.
• The sockets are available in the same sizes and
systems as spanners, and with varying depths to
increase versatility.
 Socket Accessories

• Various types of adapters and drives can be used

with sockets.
• Ratchet handles, speed braces and extension bars
are just some of the more common types in use.
• Adapters are used to hold items such as screwdriver
bits or Allen keys.
• Universal joints and angle ended extensions can
allow the socket to be driven at acute angles.
• Converters allow the size of a drive and socket to be
interchanged, ie 3/8” drive with 1/2” socket.
Allen Key

• An Allen key is an internal

hexagonal drives used to turn
Allen bolts.
• Made from hardened and
tempered hexagonal-section
steel bar.
• Classified by the dimension
across the flats.
• Used mainly when a requirement
for recessing is called for.
 Torque
• Holding power of threaded fasteners is greatly
increased, by placing it under an initial tensile load,
greater than the load it experiences during service.
• Incorrect tightening of a fastener may subject the
component to unnecessary loads, or over stress the
fastener.

• Torque is the product of a force multiplied by the

distance it is applied. (T = F x d)
• Units of torque depend on the system being used,
but the value will always be force x distance (Nm).
 Units of Torque
• The main units of torque in general use are:

• SI Newton metre Nm

• Metric kilogram force metre kgf.m

• lmperial pound force foot lbf.ft

 Torque Wrenches

• Torque wrenches can control the amount of force

applied to a fastener.

• Three main types of torque wrench are:

1. Deflecting Beam
2. Torsion Bar
3. Toggle Type
 Deflecting Beam Torque Wrench

Scale
Pointer Handle

Beam
Square Drive
Deflecting Beam Torque Wrench

• One end has a square drive whilst the other end has
an accurately ground beam mounted on a pivot.
• A pointer is connected to the square drive, and a
scale is connected to the beam.
• When a force is applied the beam bends and the
pointer deflects.
• Deflection is directly proportional to the torque, so
the value is what the pointer indicates on the scale.
• Parallax error could make obtaining an accurate
reading difficult.
 Torsion Bar Torque Wrench

Scale
Handle

Pointer

Square Drive
 Torsion Bar Torque Wrench

• Torsion Bar type utilises the twist that occurs when a

force is applied.

• An accurately ground square drive has a rack gear on

one end.

• When the bar is twisted the rack moves a pinion in a

dial indicator to show the amount of deflection.

• The dial is calibrated in the required units of torque.

 Toggle Type Torque Wrench

Handle
Scale
Reverse Switch

Lock Ring

Square Drive
 Toggle Type Torque Wrench

• Toggle type (or break back) torque wrenches uses a

spring whose length can be adjusted.
• This adjustment changes the value at which the
wrench will stop turning the fastener.
• When the pre-set torque value is reached, the
wrench handle carries on turning, and the socket
drive remains stationary.
• An audible click can be heard and felt through the
wrench to indicate the value has been reached.
• More expensive wrenches use the same principle
with an audible whine or squeal replacing the click.
 Torque Wrench Extensions

• During some maintenance procedures an adapter

must be attached to the end of the torque wrench.
• This will change the overall effective length of the
lever mechanism as the distance part of the equation
will have increased.
• In most cases the torque wrench value given by the
AMM will account for this increase in length, but it
may have to be calculated.
• The scale reading that the torque wrench should be
set to, to take account of this increase in effective
length can be found mathematically.
Continued...
 Torque Wrench
Effective Length (L)

Adapter
L
Length
(A)

A Torque
Wrench

Extension
socket/spanner
End
 Extensions Calculation

• The effective length of a torque wrench is 350 mm

and an extension socket of 50 mm is fitted.

• To what value should the torque wrench be set if the

specified torque is 250 Nm?

L
Scale Reading = Specified Torque x
L+A

Continued...
 350
Scale Reading = 250 x
350 + 50

= 250 x (350/400)

= 250 x 0.875

= 218.75 Nm

End
 Torque Wrench Pre-Use Checks
• Before a torque wrench can be used it should be
checked by the operator.

• A current calibration label should be fixed to the

wrench showing when it was calibrated and when the
next calibration check is due.

• The wrench should be set to the required torque

value and checked against a ‘Torque Wrench Master
Checking Rig’ to ascertain its accuracy.
 Torque Wrench Setting
The display should
be the same as that
set on the wrench

Torque Wrench is
turned until it clicks

Torque Wrench is
set to required value
and fitted into the
square drive
 Power Tool Safety

• Powered tools can be dangerous so we need to

observe certain safety precautions.

• Personnel must be properly trained and currently

authorised to use the equipment.

• Always use the protective guards and fences.

Continued...
• Ensure no part of the body or clothing can come into
contact with moving parts.

• Protective clothing is correctly fastened with no loose

items protruding.

• All jewellery must be removed.

• Eye protection is worn wherever there is a debris

risk.

Continued...
• Where necessary have the correct fire extinguisher
readily to hand.

• A safety mat is available to stand on where electrical

machinery is used.

• Machinery is checked for any ‘Warning’ notices

indicating it is unsafe for use.

End
 Electric Drills

• Electric Pillar Drills are used for heavy duty drilling

tasks when large and/or precise holes are required.
• Speed of rotation can be changed on a pillar drill to
suit the material or drill size and also the efficiency.
• Mains electric hand drills should not be used on
aircraft unless they are flame or spark proof.
• Cordless battery operated drills offer more flexibility,
but again should be flame or spark proof.
• A drills chuck size indicates the maximum size bit it
can accommodate.
 Pneumatic Drills

• Pneumatic power drills can be used for the same

tasks as an electric drill, but it is flame/spark proof.
• Three most common types are:
1. Straight Drill
2. Angled Drill
3. Pistol Grip Drill
• Operation of these drills can be by a trigger, push
button or lever mechanism.
• The type of drill used for the task depends on the
access available.
 Straight Pneumatic Drills
Operating
Button Chuck

• Chuck capacity of a straight pneumatic drill is either

5mm or 8mm.
• Drill bit securing is usually by a chuck key, although
some have the bulkier key-less chucks.
• The compressed air is ejected at some point on the
body of the drill.
• The more expensive types form a cone around the
chuck to blow swarf away from the operators face.
 Angled Pneumatic Drills
• These drill types
secure the drill bits
via a pair of collets.
• Each set of collets
Rotatable Head only fits one size of
Collets drill bit.
• The collets screw into
the rotating part of
the drill and are
tightened by collet
Right-Angled Head
spanners supplied
with the drill.
 Pneumatic Hammers

• Pneumatic Hammers provide the percussion impact

to enable solid rivets to be formed.
• Usually made from aluminium alloy castings to
reduce the weight.
• Two basic types refer to the stroke and hitting speed
of the hammers:
1. Short-Stroke fast-hitting giving light blows.
2. Long-Stroke slow-hitting giving heavy blows.
• The short stroke is used mostly for aircraft riveting as
the majority of rivets are the smaller diameter.
 Hammers Shapes
Pistol Grip
Operating
Lever
Swan Neck

Snap Securing
Spring

Air Connection

Straight or
Push Button
Operating Button
 Pneumatic Miller

Rubber Feet
Operating
Cutting Blade Trigger

• Pneumatic Miller (Microshaver) is used to ensure the

heads of countersunk rivets leave a smooth surface.
• They have a height adjustment to prevent the high
speed blades from cutting too deep into the skin.
• Two rubber feet ensure stability of the tool during
operation.
 Nibblers

• A nibbler is basically a high speed hacksaw used for

cutting holes in thin sheet.
• These small to medium sized holes will require hand
finishing to dimensions after cutting.
• The cutting action is similar to a reciprocating punch
that nibbles a path approximately 1mm wide, so care
must betaken to cut on the ‘waste’ side of the line.
• This tool is very good at rapid metal cutting but can
easily become uncontrollable when used by the
inexperienced.
 Pneumatic Tool Maintenance

• The air supply for pneumatic tools should be filtered

and moisture free.
• Daily draining of water traps within the workshop
gallery will help keep moisture away.
• These ‘air tools’ have built in filters, a pressure
reducing valve and a facility to allow lubrication.
• Lubrication usually by placing drops of oil into the
hose line before and after use, or via a small
reservoir connected to the same point.
• Ensure both ends of the connecting hose are free
from debris before connecting.
 Abrasive Wheels

• Abrasive Wheels (Bench Grinder) usually have coarse

grade wheel for rapid metal removal and a fine one
for finishing work.
• Protective guards and adjustable rests are fitted and
should always be used by the operator.

• Two main types of abrasives used for grinding

wheels are:
1. Aluminium Oxide (Corundum)
2. Silicon Carbide (Carborundum)
 Aluminium Oxide

• Aluminium Oxide wheels are next in hardness to

diamonds, with two varieties, the blue sapphire and
the red ruby.

• They are used to grind ferrous metals of high tensile

strength.

• Aluminium oxide wheels must never be used with

soft materials, they are liable to clog and this may
cause it to explode!
 Silicon Carbide

• Silicon Carbide formed by fusing silica with carbon in

an electric furnace.

• Used mainly on low tensile, brittle metals like cast

iron, but can also be used on non-ferrous metals such
as aluminium, brass or copper.
 General
• Only trained and authorised personnel are allowed to
use abrasive wheels.

• The machine should be secured to a bench or wall.

• Wheels should be secure, not chipped and the

bearings have no excessive play.

• Guards correctly attached and secure, with the tool

rests set at the correct distance.

Continued...
• No loose clothes to catch on the rotating wheel.

• Eye protection should be worn.

• Correct fire extinguisher available.

• Operator should stand on an insulated mat.

• The item being ground should be moved across the

full width of the wheel to avoid grooving it.

Continued...
• Uneven wheels can be dressed by an authorised
dresser using special extra hard tools.

• When grinding cutting tools keep them cool as high

temperatures could draw out their temper.

• On completion the machine should be switched off

but not left unattended until the wheel is stationary.

End