Chapter 3

Special-Purpose Diodes
 Objectives

 Describe the characteristics of a zener diode and

analyze its operation
 Explain how a zener is used in voltage regulation and
limiting
 Describe the varactor diode and its variable
capacitance characteristics
 Discuss the operation and characteristics of LEDs
and photodiodes
 Discuss the basic characteristics of the current
regulator diode, the pin diode, the step-recovery
diode, the tunnel diode, and the laser diode.
 Introduction
The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific
voltage across its terminals within given limits of line or load
change. Typically it is used for providing a stable reference
voltage for use in power supplies and other equipment.

RLoad

This particular zener circuit will work to maintain 10 V across the load.
 Zener Diodes – Operating Range

A zener diode is much like

a normal diode, the
exception being is that it
is placed in the circuit in
reverse bias and operates
in reverse breakdown.
This typical characteristic
curve illustrates the
operating range for a
zener. Note that its
forward characteristics
are just like a normal
diode.
Operating range
 Zener Diodes – Regulation Ranges
The zener diode’s Zener zone Diode zone
breakdown characteristics
are determined by the
doping process. Low
voltage zeners (>5V),
operate in the zener
breakdown range. Those
designed to operate <5 V
operate mostly in
avalanche breakdown
Avalanche
range. Zeners are
zone
available with voltage
5V.
breakdowns of 1.8 V to This curve illustrates the minimum and
200 V. maximum ranges of current operation that the
zener can effectively maintain its voltage.
 Zener Diodes – Breakdown Characteristics

Note very small reverse

current (before “knee”).

Breakdown occurs @ knee.

Breakdown Characteristics:
• VZ remains near constant
• VZ provides:
-Reference voltage
-Voltage regulation
• IZ escalates rapidly
• IZMAX is achieved quickly
• Exceeding IZMAX is fatal
 Zener Diodes – Voltage Regulation

Regulation occurs between:

VZK - knee voltage

to
VZM - Imax
 Zener Diodes – Equivalent Circuit

• Ideal Zener exhibits a

constant voltage,
regardless of current
draw.
• Ideal Zener exhibits no
resistance
characteristics.
 Zener Diodes – Equivalent Circuit

• Zener exhibits a near

constant voltage, varied
by current draw through
the series resistance ZZ.

• As Iz increases, Vz also
increases.
 Zener Diodes – Characteristic Curve

 Vz results from Iz.

 Iz thru Zz produce

this.

See Ex. 3-2

 Zener Diodes

Zener diodes have given characteristics such as;

• Temperature coefficients – describes the % Vz for Temp
(0C)
Vz = Vz x T0C x T  %/oC
See Ex.3-3 (Vz)
• Power ratings – the zener incurs power dissipation based on
Iz and Zz  P = I2Z
Power derating factor specifies the reduced power rating
for device operating temperatures in excess of the “rated
maximum temperature”.
PD(derated) = PD(max) – (mW/0C)T  mW

The data sheet provides this information. See Ex.3-4 (%/oC)

Zener Diode –
Data Sheet

• Power ratings
• Temperature
ratings
• Vz nominal
• Impedance
• Power derating
curves
• Temperature
coefficients
 Zz - Zener
impedance
 Zener Diode - Applications
Regulation
In this simple illustration of zener regulation circuit, the zener diode
will “adjust” its impedance based on varying input voltages. Zener
current will increase or decrease directly with voltage input changes.
The zener current, Iz, will vary to maintain a constant Vz.
Note: The zener has a finite range of current operation.

VZener
remains

constant
 Zener Diode - Applications
Regulation
In this simple illustration of zener regulation circuit, the zener diode
will “adjust” its impedance based on varying input voltages and loads
(RL) to be able to maintain its designated zener voltage. Zener current
will increase or decrease directly with voltage input changes. The
zener current will increase or decrease inversely with varying loads.
Again, the zener has a finite range of operation.

VZener
remains

constant

See Ex. 3-5

Acrobat Document
Zener Diode - Applications

Vin IZ Vout

Vin IZ Vout
 **
Zener Diode - Applications
1N4740
PDMAX = 1W. VZ = 10V.
IZK = 0.25mA to IZM = 100mA
VRmin = IZKR= .25mA x 220 = 55mV
VRmax = IZM = 100mA x 220 = 22V.

Calculate VZRegulate: (pg.118)

VinMIN = VR + VZ = 55mV + 10V = 10.055V.

VR = IZR = (100mA)(220) = 22V. Acrobat Document

Vin(max) = 22V + 10V = 32V See Ex. 3-5

See Ex. 3-6
VReg is ≈10V to 32V.
See Ex. 3-7
 Zener Limiting

Zener diodes can used for limiting just as normal diodes. Recall
in previous chapter studies about limiters. The difference to
consider for a zener limiter is its zener breakdown
characteristics.

See Ex.3-8
 Varactor Diodes

A varactor diode is best explained as a variable capacitor.

Think of the depletion region as a variable dielectric. The
diode is placed in reverse bias. The dielectric is “adjusted”
by reverse bias voltage changes.
 Varactor Diodes
The varactor diode can be useful in filter circuits as the
adjustable component for resonance frequency selection.

Varactor

Bias adjust
 Varactor Diodes
Capacitance Tolerance Range
- This is the equivalent of the value tolerance range of a resistor.
ie: 1N5148 – Nominal value = 47pFd
- Tolerance range is 42.3pFd to 51.7pFd
Tuning Ratio (TR) or (Capacitance Ratio)
- Refers to Rangeability (value @ Bias Vmax vs Bias Vmin)
- Vmin is 4V bias (C4) (for the 1N5139, C4 = 6.8pFd)
- Vmax is 60V bias (C60) (for the 1n5139, C60 = 2.3pFd)
For the 1N5139, TR = 2.9
Quality Factor (Q) describes energy loss in the device. High Q
desireable)
Temperature Coefficient - ∆Capacitance vs ∆Temp
See pg.127
Acrobat Document
See Ex.3-9
 Resonant Band-pass Filter w/ Varactor Diode

Parallel Resonant Tank

Series Resonant
31.6V
Tank

Varactor

VR = 2.85 to 28.7V

VBIAS = 2.9V to 29V

CVaractor = 17pF to 55pF

Varactor Bias
Resonant Frequency Range:

fr = 679kHz to 1.22MHz. See Related Problem pg.130

 Optical Diodes
The light-emitting diode (LED) emits photons as visible
light. Its purpose is for indication and other intelligible
displays. Various impurities are added during the doping
process to vary the color output.
 Optical Diodes
Electroluminescence, the process of
emitting photons from a parent material
(substrate), is the basis for LEDs.
Colors result from the choice of substrate
material and the resulting wavelength;
Todays LEDs (green,red, yellow) are based
on indium gallium aluminum phosphide
Blue uses silicon carbide or gallium nitride
IR (infrared) – GaAs (gallium arsenide)
A strong +bias
LED Biasing: 1.2V to 3.2V is typical. encourages conduction-
band electrons in the N-
Note: Some newer LED’s run at higher material to leap the
voltages and emit immense light energy. junction and recombine
Applications: Traffic signals with available holes
Outdoor video screens releasing light and heat.
Runway markers
 LED – Spectral Curves

Note the wavelengths of the various

colors and infrared.
Note lead designations to the right.
LED Datasheet – MLED81 Infrared LED
LED Datasheet – MLED81
 Optical Diodes
The seven segment display is an example of LEDs use for display
of decimal digits.

Acrobat Document
See “Light Emitting Diodes.pdf”
 Photodiodes
Unlike LED’s, photodiodes receive light rather than produce light. The
photodiode varies it’s current in response to the amount of light that
strikes it. It is placed in the circuit in reverse bias. As with most
diodes, no current flows when in reverse bias, but when light strikes
the exposed junction through a tiny window, reverse current
increases proportional to light intensity (irradiance).
Note: Photodiodes all
exhibit a “reverse
leakage current”
which appears as an
inverse variable
resistance. Irradiance
causes the device to
exhibit a reduction in
the variable
resistance
characteristic.
 Photodiodes

You have this

one in your kit.
Photodiodes – MRD821
Photodiodes – MRD821
 Other Diode Types

Current regulator diodes

(constant current
diodes) keep a constant
current value over a
specified range of
forward bias voltages
ranging from about 1.5 Operating Range
V to 6 V.
This device exhibits very
high impedances.
 Other Diode Types
The Schottky diode’s (hot-carrier diodes) significant
characteristic is its fast switching speed. This is useful for high
frequencies and digital applications. It is not a typical diode in
that it does not have a p-n junction. Instead, it consists of a
lightly-doped n-material and heavily-doped (conduction-band
electrons) metal bounded together.
Response is very quick…high speed digital communications.

Lightly doped Heavily doped (conduction-

band electrons)
 Other Diode Types
The pin diode is also used in mostly microwave frequency
applications. Its variable forward series resistance characteristic is
used for attenuation, modulation, and switching. In reverse bias it
exhibits a nearly constant capacitance. Also used in attentuators.
Current-controlled
Fixed Capacitance Resistance
 Other Diode Types
The step-recovery diode is also used for fast switching
applications. This is achieved by reduced doping near
the junction. The diode recovers very quickly, making it
useful in high-frequency (VHF) applications.
 Other Diode Types
The tunnel diode exhibits negative resistance. It will actually
conduct well with low forward bias. With further increases in bias it
reaches the negative resistance range where current will actually go
down. This is achieved by heavily-doped p and n materials that
create a very thin depletion region which permits electrons to
“tunnel” thru the barrier region.
Tank circuits oscillate but “die out” due
to the internal resistance. A tunnel
diode will provide “negative resistance”
that overcomes the loses and
maintains the oscillations.

Germanium or Gallium
 Tunnel Diodes
Tank circuits oscillate but “die out” due to the internal resistance. A
tunnel diode will provide “negative resistance” that overcomes the
loses and maintains the oscillations.
 Other Diode Types
The laser diode (light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation) produces a monochromatic (single color) “coherent”
light. Laser diodes in conjunction with photodiodes are used to
retrieve data from compact discs.

Forward bias the diode and electrons move thru the junction,
recombination occurs (as ordinary). Recombinations result in
photon release, causing a chain reaction of releases and
avalanching photons which form an intense laser beam.
 Troubleshooting
Although precise power supplies typically use IC type
regulators, zener diodes can be used alone as a voltage
regulator. As with all troubleshooting techniques we
must know what is normal.

A properly functioning zener will work to maintain the output voltage

within certain limits despite changes in load.
 Troubleshooting
With an open zener diode, the full unregulated
voltage will be present at the output without a
load. In some cases with full or partial loading an
open zener could remain undetected.
 Troubleshooting
With excessive zener impedance the voltage would be
higher than normal but less than the full unregulated
output.
 Summary
 The zener diode operates in reverse breakdown.
 A zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage
across its terminals over a specified range of currents.
 Line regulation is the maintenance of a specific
voltage with changing input voltages.
 Load regulation is the maintenance of a specific
voltage for different loads.
 There are other diode types used for specific RF
purposes such as varactor diodes (variable
capacitance), Schottky diodes (high speed switching),
and PIN diodes (microwave attenuation and
switching).
 Summary
 Light emitting diodes (LED) emit either infrared or
visible light when forward-biased.
 Photodiodes exhibit an increase in reverse current
with light intensity.
 The laser diode emits a monochromatic light