Discourse analysis

Section: A
 Syllabus
Section: A
1. Discourse and Discourse Analysis:
Definition, Features, Types, Elements,
and Structures of Discourse; Difference
between Text and Discourse; Scope of
Discourse Analysis
2. Role of Context in Interpretation;
Speech Acts and Discourse Analysis;
Layers of Discourse Analysis
3. Discourse and Pragmatics; Analysis of
General and Scientific Discourse
 Topics to be Discussed today:

Speech Acts
Speech Act and Discourse Analysis:
 What is Speech Act?

• Simply speech act indicates an

utterance as functional unit in
communication.

• In broadest sense speech acts mean all

the acts performed through speaking.
 Austin and Searle

• Austin, J. L. How to Do Things with

Words. Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press, 1962.
 Speech Act Theory

John L. Austin (Proposed)

J. R. Searle (Developed)

They believe that language is not only

used to inform or to describe things, it
is often used to “do things”, to perform
acts.

For Example.:
(1) You’re fired.
(2) “There is a policeman on the corner”
• “There is a policeman at the corner.”

• This could be a warning, an

assurance, a dare, a hint, or a
reminder to go and take your car out
of the handicapped space you are
parked in.
• “I promise I’ll be there tomorrow.”

• This could be a threat or a promise,

depending on whether his presence
tomorrow is a disadvantage or an
advantage to the listener. Contrast the
sentence above with:

• “If you don’t behave, I promise you

there’s going to be trouble.” This
sentence says it’s a “promise,” but it’s a
“threat.”
(Searle: Speech Acts 58)
Actions performed via utterances are
generally called speech acts, the
uttering of the relevant words is the
action itself; without the utterance the
action is not done.
These are called performative sentences
and the verbs used are called
performative verbs (Vp):
 Meanings in speech act

• In speech act theory, utterances have

two kinds of meaning:
i) Propositional meaning:
ii) Illocutionary meaning
 Propositional meaning:

It is also known as locutionary meaning.

This is the basic literal meaning of the

utterance which is conveyed by the
particular words and structures that the
utterance contains.
 Illocutionary meaning:

It is also known as illocutionary force.

This is the effect the utterance or written

text has on the reader or listener.

Example: ( I am thirsty.)

The propositional meaning is what the

utterance says about the speaker’s
physical state. The illocutionary meaning
is the effect the speaker wants the
utterance to have on the listener. It may
be intended as a request for something to
drink.
Austin suggests
Three types of acts

1. Locutionary act
2. Illocutionary act
3. Perlocutinary act
 The speech act theory

1. Locutionary act: the act of saying, the

literal meaning of the utterance
2. Illocutionary act: the extra meaning
of the utterance produced on the basis
of its literal meaning
3. Perlocutionary act: the effect of the
utterance on the hearer, depending on
specific circumstances.
 (1) It’s stuffy in here.

• The locutionary act is the saying of it

with its literal meaning “There isn’t
enough fresh air in here”.
• The illocutionary act can be a request
of the hearer to open the window.
• The perlocutinary act can be the
hearer’s opening the window or his
refusal to do so. In fact, we might utter
(1) to make a statement, a request, an
explanation, or for some other
communicative purposes. This is also
generally known as the illocutionary
force of the utterance.
2.
Husband: That’s the phone.
Wife: I’m in the bathroom.
Husband: Okay.

Its illocutionary acts are:

• (i) a refusal to comply with the request
• (ii) a request to her husband to answer
the phone instead.
Austin maintains that in issuing an
utterance a speaker can perform three
acts simultaneously.
Locutionary acts refer to the act of
saying something, whereas
illocutionary acts mean an action
performed in saying something and a
perlocutionary act is the result or effect
produced by means of saying
something.

1. Read the poem.

2. Shut the door.
3. Learn English.
 Searle’s classification

John R. Searle has established a five part

classification of speech acts :
1. Directives
2. Commissives
3. Representatives
4. Declaratives
5. Expressives
 Directives

Directive is a speech act that is to cause the

hearer to take a particular action. In other
words, a speech act that has a function of
getting the listener to do something, such
as a suggestion, a request, or a command.

Examples:
1) I need/ want that car.
2) Give me your pen.
3) Could you give me your pen, please?
4) May I have some soda? Is there any milk
left?
 Commissives

Commissive is a speech act that commits

a speaker to doing something in the
future, such as a promise or a threat or
a refusal.

Examples:
1. Maybe I can do that tomorrow.
2. Don’t worry, I’ll be there.
3. If you don’t stop fighting, I’ll call the
police.
 Representatives

Representative is a speech act that commits

a speaker to the truth of the expressed
proposition.

Example:
I went to the Affandi painting exhibition.
There are about twenty paintings on
display. Some are very classic and
extraordinarily awesome.
Actually it describes states or events in the
world, such as an assertion, a claim, a
report etc.
Example: This is a German car. (Assertion)
 Declaratives

• Declarative is a speech act that changes

the reality in accord with the proposition
of the declaration. In other words, it is a
speech act that changes the state of affairs
in the world.

Examples:
1. Class dismissed (students get up and
leave) .
2. I now pronounce you husband and wife.
(During wedding ceremony the act of
marriage is performed when the phrase is
uttered)
 Expressives

• Expressive is a speech act that expresses

on the speaker's attitudes and emotions
towards the proposition. In other words,
in this speech act, the speaker expresses
feeling and attitudes about something,
such as an apology, a complaint, to thank
some one, to congratulate some one etc.
For example:
1. I am very disappointed.
2. What a great day!!!
3. Oh my, that’s terrible.
 Functions of speech act

1. Exchange factual information

The plain departs at 7:10.
2. Exchange intellectual information
These arguments are correct.
3. Exchange emotional attitudes
I’m worried about my term papers.
4. Exchange moral attitudes
I appreciate your help.
5. Persuasion
Hand in your assignments.
6. Socializing
Hi, Larry, how are you?
 Indirect speech acts
Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more
polite ways of performing certain kinds
of speech act, such as requests and
refusals.

Examples
“Could you move over a bit?”
• “Yes” (without moving is inappropriate)
• Moving (without “Yes” is appropriate)

NOTE: “Could you move over a bit” is a

precondition to the actual speech act,
“Move over.”
 (2) a. It’s cold outside.
b. I hereby tell you about the weather.
c. I hereby request of you that you close
the door.

• Whenever there is a direct relationship

between a structure and a function, we
have a direct speech act. For example, a
declarative used to make a statement is a
direct speech act, but a declarative used
to make a request is an indirect speech
act.
• As illustrated in (2), the utterance in (2a)
is a declarative. When it is used to make a
statement, as paraphrased in (2b), it is
functioning as a direct speech act. When
it is used to make a command/request, as
paraphrased in (2c), it is functioning as an
indirect speech act.
 Searle’s Indirect Speech act
Indirect speech acts refer to the speech acts
performed indirectly through the
performance of another speech act.
For example, to request for salt, we could
have various indirect forms which Searle
(1969) groups into six categories:
1. Sentence concerning the hearer’s ability:
Can you pass the salt?
2. Sentence concerning the hearer’s future
action
Are you going to pass the salt?
3. Sentence concerning the speaker’s wish
or want:
I would like you to pass the last
4. Sentence concerning the hearer’s
desire or willingness:
Would you mind passing the salt?
5. Sentence concerning reasons for
action:
I don’t think you salted the potatoes
6. Sentence concerning either one of the
above or an explicit performative
Can I ask you to pass the salt?
 Ironic Speech Acts

• I promise not to keep this promise.

• Do not read this sign.

• You did a great job, and I’m not being

polite.

• George Lakoff wrote a book entitled,

Don’t Think of an Elephant.
• In Mexico in the old days, the
Federales would pull a person over and
ask to see their driver’s license.
Silence as a speech acts
• Before handing over the driver’s
license the driver would attach a $20
bill onto the back of the license.

• Nothing was said by either party. Was

this, therefore, a bribe, or not?
• MOTHER (Calling out the window to
child in yard): Joshua, what are you
doing?

• JOSHUA: Nothing…

• MOTHER: WILL YOU STOP IT

IMMEDIATELY!
Any Question