LECTURE 6

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

Transportation Engineering An Introduction 3rd Edition by C.

Jotin Khisty and B. Kent Lall (Pages 181 – 188)

A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

(GREEN BOOK)
 Sight Distance
For operating a motor vehicle safely and
efficiently, it is of utmost importance that
drivers have the capability of seeing clearly
ahead. Therefore, sight distance of sufficient
length must be provided so that the drivers can
operate and control their vehicles safely.
Sight distance is the length of the highway
visible ahead to the driver of the vehicle
 Aspects of Sight Distance
• The distances required by motor vehicles
to stop.
• The distances needed for decisions at
complex locations
• The distances required for passing and
overtaking vehicles, applicable on two-
lane highways
• The criteria for measuring these distances
for use in design.
 Sight Distance
• The four following aspects are commonly
discussed for motor vehicle sight distance:
1.Stopping sight distance
2.Passing sight distance
3.Decision sight distance
4.Intersection sight distance.

• All of these sight distances are related to the

design speed of the roadway.
 a. Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance is the distance necessary for
a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before
reaching a stationary object in its path.

The sight distance at every point along a roadway

should be at least the stopping sight distance.
Stopping sight distance is the aggregate of two
distances:
•brake reaction distance and
•braking distance.
Brake reaction time is the interval between the instant
that the driver recognizes the existence of an object or
hazard ahead and the instant that the brakes are
actually applied.

Extensive studies have been conducted to ascertain

brake reaction time. Minimum reaction times can be as
little as 1.64 seconds: 0.64 for alerted drivers plus 1
second for the unexpected signal.
Some drivers may take over 3.5 seconds
to respond under similar circumstances.
For approximately 90% of drivers,
including older drivers, a reaction time
of 2.5 sec is considered adequate. This
value is therefore used in Table 3.1
 Sight Distance
• Motor Vehicle Stopping Sight Distance
The braking distance of a vehicle on a
roadway may be determined by the formula
v 2

d  Equation (1)
2a
d = braking distance (ft) or (m)
v = initial speed (ft/s) or (m/s)
a = deceleration rate, ft/s² (m/s²)
Studies (Fambro et aI., 1997) document that
most drivers decelerate at a rate greater than
4.5 m/s² (14.8 ft/s²) when confronted with an
urgent need to stop-for example, when seeing an
unexpected object in the roadway.
Approximately 90 percent of all drivers
displayed deceleration rates of at least 3.4 m/s²
(11.2 ft/s²).
Such deceleration rates are within a driver's
capability while maintaining steering control
and staying in a lane when braking on wet
surfaces. Most vehicle braking systems and
tire-pavement friction levels are also capable
of providing this level. Therefore, a
deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s² (11.2 ft/s²) is
recommended as a threshold for determining
stopping sight distance (AASHTO, 2004).
 Design Values
The sum of the distance traversed during the
brake reaction time and the distance to brake
the vehicle to a stop is the stopping sight
distance.
The computed distances for wet pavements
and for various speeds at the assumed
conditions are shown in Exhibit 3-1 and were
developed from the following equation:
 v 2

S   vt Equation 2
2a
r

where tr is the driver reaction time (see). If

speed is given in miles per hour or kilometer
per hour, Equation (2) can be rewritten as
Note that the units for S are in feet and V is in miles per
hour, assuming that 1 ft/sec = 0.682 mph (or 1.466 ft/sec = 1
mph).
In computing and measuring stopping sight
distances, the height of the driver's eye is
estimated to be 1,080 mm [3.5 ft] and the
height of the object to be seen by the driver
is 600 mm [2.0 ft], equivalent to the tail-light
height of a passenger car.
 Effect of Grade on Stopping
When a highway is on a grade, the equation
for braking distance should be modified as
follows:
v 2

S   vt Eq - 3
( 2a  G )
r

Where G is grade or longitudinal slope of the

highway divided by 100.
Stopping sight distances calculated as based on
Equation (2)
v 2

S   vt
2a
r
are shown in Exhibit - 1 and are based on
passenger car operation.
Truck stopping distances are usually longer,
particularly for heavy trucks. This is
somewhat compensated by the truck driver's
ability to see farther ahead over sight
obstructions because of the higher placement
of the seat in the vehicle.
Generally in highway design separate
stopping sight distances are therefore not
used for trucks and passenger cars.
However, at the end of long down- grades where
truck speeds approach or exceed passenger car
speeds, it is desirable to provide distances greater
than those recommended in Exhibit - 1 or even
those calculated based on Equation (3).
v 2

S   vt
( 2a  G )
r

It is easy to see that under these circumstances

higher eye position of the truck driver can be of
little advantage.
 Discussion
The driver's reaction time, the condition
of the road pavement, vehicle braking
system, and the prevailing weather all
play a significant role in this problem.
 b. Decision Sight Distance
Although stopping sight distances are generally
sufficient to allow competent and alert drivers
to stop their vehicles under ordinary
circumstances, these distances are insufficient
when information is difficult to perceive. When
a driver is required to detect an unexpected or
otherwise difficult-to-perceive information
source, a decision sight distance should be
provided.
Interchanges and intersections, changes in
cross-section such as toll plazas and lane
drops, and areas with "visual noise" are
examples where drivers need decision sight
distances. Exhibit 3-3, provides values used
by designers for appropriate sight distances.
Case A: Intersections with No Control on Any Approach
Case B – Stop Control on Minor Street
These values are applicable to most
situations and have been developed from
empirical data. Because of additional
maneuvering space needed for safety, it is
recommended that decision sight
distances be provided at critical locations
or critical decision points may be moved
to where adequate distances are
available.
If it is not practical to provide decision sight
distance because of horizontal or vertical
curvature or if relocation of decision points
is not practical, special attention should be
given to the use of suitable traffic control
devices for providing advance warning of
the conditions that are likely to be
encountered.
 c. Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane
Highways
On most two-lane, two-way highways, vehicles
frequently overtake slower-moving vehicles by
using the lane meant for the opposing traffic. To
complete the passing maneuver safely, the
driver should be able to see a sufficient distance
ahead. Passing sight distance is determined on
the basis that a driver wishes to pass a single
vehicle, although multiple-vehicle passing is
permissible.
The minimum passing sight distance for
two-lane highways is determined as the
sum of the four distances shown in Figures
on next slides.
 Based on observed traffic behavior, the
following assumptions are made:

• The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform

speed.
• The passing vehicle has reduced speed and
trails the overtaken vehicle as it enters a
passing section.
• The passing driver requires a short period
of time to perceive the clear passing section,
when reached, and to start maneuvering.
4)The passing vehicle accelerates during the
maneuver, during the occupancy of the right
lane, at about 15 km/h (10 mph) higher than
the overtaken vehicle.
5)There is a suitable clearance length between
the passing vehicle and the oncoming vehicle
upon completion of the maneuver.
Distances in Exhibit 3-3 for avoidance
maneuvers A and B are calculated as
based on Equation (2); however, with
modified driver reaction time as stated
in the notes for Exhibit 3-3. Decision
sight distances for maneuvers C, D,
and E are calculated from either
0.278Vt or 1.47 V t, with t, modified as
in the notes.
Safe passing sight distances for various
speed ranges determined from distance
and time values observed in the field
are summarized in Exhibit 3-5
 Initial maneuver distance d1
The distance d1 traveled during the initial maneuver
period is computed with the following equation:
 Distance while passing vehicle occupies left
lane (d2).
Passing vehicles were found in the study to
occupy the left lane from 9.3 to 10.4 s. The
distance d2 traveled in the left lane by the
passing vehicle is computed with the
following equation:
 Clearance length (d3).
The clearance length between the
opposing and passing vehicles at the end
of the passing maneuvers was found in the
passing study to vary from 30 to 75 m [100
to 250 ft].
Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle (d 4)
The opposing vehicle is assumed to be traveling
at the same speed as the passing vehicle, so
Estimation of Velocity of a Vehicle just Before it
is Involved in an accident
Some times it is necessary to determine the
velocity of a vehicle just before it is involved
in an accident. Following steps are involved:
1) Estimate length of skid marks for all the four
tyres of the vehicle and take the average
length. This is equal to breaking distance.
2)Find out “f” by performing trial runs
under same environment /weather
conditions and using a vehicle having
similar conditions of tyres. Vehicle is
driven at a known speed and breaking
distance is measured.
3)The unknown speed is than determined
using the braking formula.