Common Filipino Fallacies

Different
errors
committed
in social
media.
 Arguments and Fallacies

This lesson
introduces the
basic concept of
argumentation
and fallacies.
 Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson,

the student will:
1. Identify valid from
invalid arguments.
2.Communicate in a
logical way.
 Arguments and Fallacies

Reasons for your assertions

and beliefs.
It has true premises and
true conclusion
The truth of the conclusion
is the logical consequence
of the premises.
Arguments and Fallacies

True
premises
with false
conclusion.
 Arguments and Fallacies

True
premise
with true
conclusion
 Module 4:
Fallacies

Zaid Ali Alsagoff

zaid.alsagoff@gmail.com
Module 4: Fallacies

1. Fallacies What
of Relevance mistake!!!

2. Fallacies of
Insufficient
Evidence
4.0 What is a Fallacy?
A (logical) fallacy is an argument that contains a
mistake in reasoning.

Fallacies can be divided into two general types:

 Fallacies of Relevance
Arguments in which the premises are logically
irrelevant to the conclusion.
 Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence
Arguments in which the premises, though
logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to provide
sufficient evidence for the conclusion.
“There is nothing so stupid as an educated man,
if you get him off the thing he was educated in”
- Will Rogers
4.1 Fallacies of Relevance
Personal Attack Appeal to Pity

Attacking the Motive Bandwagon

Argument
Look Who’s Talking Straw Man

Begging the Question Red Herring

Scare Tactics Equivocation

Two Wrongs Make a Right

4.1.1 Personal Attack

Personal Attack
When an arguer rejects a person’s argument or claim
by attacking the person’s character rather than
examining the worth of the argument or claim itself.

Example:
Professor Doogie has argued for more emphasis on music in
our F2F classes to facilitate creativity. But Doogie is a
selfish bigheaded fool. I absolutely refuse to listen to him.

1. X is a bad person.
Pattern
2. Therefore X's argument must be bad.
4.1.2 Attacking the Motive

Attacking the Motive

When an arguer criticizes a person’s motivation for
offering a particular argument or claim, rather than
examining the worth of the argument or claim itself.

Example:
Donald Trump has argued that we need to build a new campus. But Trump
is the owner of Trump’s Construction Company. He’ll make a fortune if
his company is picked to build the new campus. Obviously, Trump’s
argument is a lot of self-serving nonsense.

1. X has biased or has questionable motives.

Pattern 2. Therefore, X’s arguments or claim should be rejected.
4.1.3 Look Who’s Talking

Look Who’s Talking (tu quoque)

When an arguer rejects another person’s argument
or claim because that person is a hypocrite.

Example:
Doctor: You should quite smoking.
Patient: Look who’s talking! I’ll quit when you do, Dr. Smokestack!

1. X fails to follow his or her own advice.

Pattern 2. Therefore, X’s claim or argument should be rejected.
4.1.4 Two Wrongs Make a Right

Two Wrongs Make a Right

When an arguer attempts to justify a wrongful act
by claiming that some other act is just as bad or worse.

Examples:
1. “I don’t feel guilty about cheating on Zaid’s online quiz. Half the
class cheats on his quiz.”

2. “Why pick on me, officer? Everyone else is using drugs.”

1. Others are committing worse or equally bad acts.

Pattern 2. Therefore my wrongful act is justified.
4.1.5 Scare Tactics

Scare Tactics
When an arguer threatens harm to a reader or listener
and this threat is irrelevant to the truth of
the arguer’s conclusion.

Example:
Diplomat to diplomat: I’m sure you’ll agree that we are the rightful
rulers of the Iraq. It would be regrettable if we had to send armed
forces to demonstrate the validity of our claim.

Fear is a powerful motivator – so powerful that it often

Remember causes us to think and behave irrationally.
4.1.6 Appeal to Pity

Appeal to Pity
When an arguer attempts to evoke feelings of pity or
compassion, where such feelings, however understandable,
are not relevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion.

Example:
Student to Lecturer: I know I missed half your classes and failed all my quizzes
and assignments. First my cat died. Then my girlfriend told me she has found
someone else. With all I went through this semester, I don’t think I really deserve
an F. Any chance you might cut me some slack and change my grade to a C or a
D?

1. P is presented, with the intent to create pity.

Pattern
2. Therefore claim C is true.
4.1.7 Bandwagon Argument

Bandwagon Argument (Peer Pressure)

When an arguer appeals to a person’s desire to be popular,
accepted, or valued, rather than to logically relevant
reasons or evidence.

Example:
All the really cool UNITAR students smoke cigarettes.
Therefore, you should, too.

1. Most (or a select group of) people believe or do X.

Pattern
2. Therefore, you should believe or do X.
4.1.8 Straw Man

Straw Man
When an arguer misrepresents another person’s
position to make it easier to attack.
Example:
Singh and Karen are arguing about cleaning out their closets:
 Suzie: "We should clean out the closets. They are getting a bit messy.“
 Singh: "Why, we just went through those closets last year. Do we have
to clean them out everyday?"
 Suzie: "I never said anything about cleaning them out every day. You
just want too keep all your junk forever, which is just ridiculous."

1. Person A has position X.

2. Person B presents position Y (which is a distorted version of X).
Pattern 3. Person B attacks position Y.
4. Therefore X is false/incorrect/flawed.
4.1.9 Red Herring

Red Herring
When an arguer tries to sidetrack his audience by raising
an irrelevant issue, and then claims that the original
issue has been effectively settled by the
irrelevant diversion.

Example:
"I think there is great merit in making the requirements stricter for the
graduate students. I recommend that you support it, too. After all, we are
in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected."

1. Topic A is under discussion.

2. Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant
Pattern to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A).
3. Topic A is abandoned.
4.1.10 Equivocation

Equivocation
When an arguer uses a key word in an argument in two
(or more) different senses.

Example:
In the summer of 1940, Londoners were bombed almost very
night. To be bombed is to be intoxicated. Therefore, in the
summer of 1940, Londoners were intoxicated almost every
night.

Fallacies of Equivocation can be difficult to spot because

Remember they often appear valid, but they aren’t.
4.1.11 Begging the Question

Begging the Question

When an arguer states or assumes as a premise (reason)
the very thing he is seeking to probe as a conclusion.

Example:
I am entitled to say whatever I choose because I have a right
to say whatever I please.

Reason Arguing in a circle – A because B, B because A.

4.1 Mini Quiz – Question 1

I'm trying hard to understand this guy who identifies himself as a

security supervisor and criticizes the police officers in this area. I
can only come up with two solutions. One, he is either a member of
the criminal element, or two, he is a frustrated security guard who
can never make it as a police officer and figures he can take cheap
shots at cops through the newspaper (adapted from a newspaper
call-in column).

Which fallacy?

A) Loaded Question
B) Personal Attack
C) Bandwagon Argument
D) Scare Tactics
4.1 Mini Quiz – Question 2

The Red Cross is worried about the treatment of the

suspected terrorists held by the U.S. at Guantanamo
Bay, Cuba. What do they want the U.S. to do with
them, put them on the beaches of Florida for a
vacation or take them skiing in the Rockies? Come
on, let's worry about the Americans. (adapted from a
newspaper call-in column)

Which fallacy?

A) Bandwagon Argument
B) Personal Attack
C) Straw Man
D) Scare Tactics
“The foolish and the dead alone
never change their opinion.”
- James Russell Lowell
4.2 Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence

Arguments in which the

premises, though logically
relevant to the conclusion, fail
to provide sufficient evidence to
support the conclusion.
4.2 Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence
Inappropriate Appeal Questionable Cause
to Authority
Appeal to Ignorance Slippery Slope

False Alternatives Weak Analogy

Loaded Question Inconsistency

Hasty Generalizations
4.2.1 Inappropriate Appeal to Authority

Inappropriate Appeal to Authority

Citing a witness or authority that is untrustworthy.

Example:
My dentist told me that aliens built the lost city of Atlantis. So,
it’s reasonable to believe that aliens did build the lost city of
Atlantis.
Authority Assessment
1. Is the source an authority on the subject at issue?
2. Is the source biased?
3. Is the accuracy of the source observations questionable?
4. Is the source known to be generally unreliable?
5. Has the source been cited correctly?
6. Does the source’s claim conflict with expert opinion?
7. Can the source’s claim be settled by an appeal to expert opinion?
Tips 8. Is the claim highly improbable on its face?
4.2.2 Appeal to Ignorance

Appeal to Ignorance
Claiming that something is true because no one has
proven it false or vice versa.

Example:
Yoda must exist. No one has proved that he
doesn’t exist.

Agree
I do!

“Not proven, therefore false”

Remember If such reasoning were allowed, we could prove almost
any conclusion.
4.2.3 False Alternatives

False Alternatives
Posing a false either/or choice.

Example:
The choice in this MPM election is clear: Either we elect
Zubaidah as our next president, or we watch our MPM unity
slide into anarchy and frustration. Clearly, we don’t want that
to happen. Therefore, we should elect Zubaidah as our next
president.

Fallacy of false alternatives can involve more than

two (2) alternatives. It can also be expressed as a
Remember
conditional (if-then) statement.
4.2.4 Loaded Question

Loaded Question
Posing a question that contains an unfair or unwarranted
presupposition.

Example:
Lee: Are you still friends with that loser Richard?
Ali: Yes.
Lee: Well, at least you admit he’s a total loser.

To respond to a loaded question effectively, one must

Tip distinguish the different questions being asked and respond
to each individually.
4.2.5 Questionable Cause

Questionable Cause
Claiming, without sufficient evidence, that one thing
is the cause of something else.

Example:
Sarah gets a chain letter that threatens her with dire consequences if she
breaks the chain. She laughs at it and throws it in the garbage. On her
way to work she slips and breaks his arm. When she gets back from the
hospital she sends out 200 copies of the chain letter, hoping to avoid
further accidents.

1. A and B are associated on a regular basis.

Pattern
2. Therefore A is the cause of B.
4.2.6 Hasty Generalization

Hasty Generalization
Drawing a general conclusion from a sample that
is biased or too small.

Example:
Norwegians are lazy. I have two friends who are from there,
and both of them never prepare for class, or do their
homework.

1. A biased sample is one that is not representative of the target population.

2. The target population is the group of people or things that the
Pattern
generalization is about.
3. Hasty generalizations can often lead to false stereotypes.
4.2.7 Slippery Slope

Slippery Slope
Claiming, without sufficient evidence, that a seemingly
harmless action, if taken, will lead to a disastrous
outcome.
Examples:
“The Malaysian militarily shouldn't get involved in other countries. Once
the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to
die."

1. The arguer claims that if a certain seemingly harmless action, A,

is permitted, A will lead to B, B will lead to C, and so on to D.
2. The arguer holds that D is a terrible thing and therefore should
not be permitted.
Pattern 3. In fact, there is no good reason to believe that A will actually
lead to D.
4.2.8 Weak Analogy

Weak Analogy
Comparing things that aren’t really comparable.

Example:
Nobody would buy a car without first taking it for a test drive.
Why then shouldn’t two mature UNITAR students live
together before they decide whether to get married?

1. List all important similarities between the two cases.

2. List all important dissimilarities between the two cases.
Tip 3. Decide whether the similarities or dissimilarities are
more important.
4.2.9 Inconsistency

Inconsistency
Asserting inconsistent or contradictory claims.

Example:
Note found in a Forest Service Suggestion box: Park visitors
need to know how important it is to keep this wilderness
area completely pristine and undisturbed. So why not put up
a few signs to remind people of this fact?

It is also a mistake to cling stubbornly to an old idea when new

information suggests that the idea is false.
Remember
Open-minded to new ideas = Learning
4.2 Mini Quiz – Question 1

What's to say against [cigars]? They killed George

Burns at 100. If he hadn't smoked them, he'd have
died at 75. (Bert Sugar, quoted in New York Times,
September 20, 2002)

Which fallacy?

A) Questionable Cause
B) Hasty Generalization
C) Slippery Slope
D) Weak Analogy
4.2 Mini Quiz – Question 2

According to North Korea's official state-run news agency, "a

war between North Korea and the United States will end with
the delightful victory of North Korea, a newly emerging military
power, in 100 hours. . . . The U. S. [will] be enveloped in flames.
. . and the arrogant empire of the devil will breathe its last".
Given that this prediction comes from the official North Korean
news agency, it is probably true.
(Passage quoted in Nicholas D. Kristof, "Empire of the Devil," New
York Times, April 4, 2003)

Which fallacy?

A) Inappropriate Appeal to Authority

B) Appeal to Ignorance
C) False Alternatives
D) Loaded Question
4.2 Mini Quiz – Question 3

Jurors in tobacco lawsuits should award judgments so large

that they put tobacco companies out of business. Respecting
the right of tobacco companies to stay in business is akin to
saying there are "two sides" to slavery...
(Anti-tobacco lawyer, quoted in George F. Will, "Court Ruling
Expresses Anti-Smoking Hypocrisy," Wilkes-Barre Times
Leader, May 25, 2003)

Which fallacy?

A) Loaded Question
B) Hasty Generalization
C) Slippery Slope
D) Weak Analogy
Group Activity
Break into groups of 4 - 6, and construct five (5) fallacious
arguments.
Each group can choose any of the 20 fallacies discussed, but
must construct at least two fallacious arguments of each
category: Fallacies of Relevance & Fallacies of Insufficient
Evidence).
The constructed fallacious arguments must discuss the
topics specified in the template provided (Business,
Education, Information Technology, Environment, and
Tourism).
20 min Construct 5 fallacious arguments.
5 min Document constructed arguments into the template provided.
15 min Group presentation & discussion.
The Group leader must submit their findings in hard-copy or soft-copy format to the
lecturer before or during the next class.
Summary – 20 Common Fallacies
Fallacy
An argument that contains a mistake in reasoning.
Fallacies of Relevance Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence
Arguments in which the premises are Arguments in which the premises, though
logically irrelevant to the conclusion. logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to
provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.

 Personal Attack  Inappropriate Appeal to Authority

 Attacking the Motive  Appeal to Ignorance
 Look Who’s Talking
 False Alternatives
 Two Wrongs Make a Right
 Scare Tactics  Loaded Question
 Appeal to Pity  Questionable Cause
 Bandwagon Argument  Hasty Generalization
 Straw Man
 Slippery Slope
 Red Herring
 Weak Analogy
 Equivocation
 Begging the Question  Inconsistency
Any Questions?
The End
References
Book
Chapter 5 (Logical Fallacies -1) & 6 (Logical Fallacies -
2): G Bassham, W Irwin, H Nardone, J M Wallace, Critical
Thinking: A Student's Introduction, McGraw-Hill International
Edition, 2007

Online Resources
Fallacies (The Nizkor Project):
http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/
Cool Optical Illusions:
http://www.coolopticalillusions.com/
Contact Details

Zaid Ali Alsagoff

UNIVERSITI TUN ABDUL RAZAK
16-5, Jalan SS 6/12
47301 Kelana Jaya
Selangor Darul Ehsan
Malaysia
E-mail: zaid.alsagoff@gmail.com

Tel: 603-7627 7238

Fax: 603-7627 7246