CARMEL CONVENT SR. SEC.

SCHOOL RATANPUR
BHOPAL

PHYSICS PROJECT
2019-2020
TOPIC - OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

SUBMITTED BY : DIVYANSHI MAKODE

CLASS : XII B
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of

gratitude to my teachers as well as our prin
cipal reference sister Dr. Kripa who gave m
e the golden opportunity to do this wonderfu
l project on the topic Optical instruments
which also helped me in doing a lot of Resea
rch and i came to know about so many new thi
ngs. I am really thankful to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my paren
ts and friends who helped me a lot in finish
ing this project within the limited time.
I am making this project not only for marks
but to also increase my knowledge .
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Divyanshi Makode ,

a student of Class XII has successfully co
mpleted the research on the project Optica
l instruments during the year 2019-2020 in
partial fulfilment of physics practical ex
amination.

EXTERNAL TEACHER INTERNAL TEACHER

 CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
Optical instruments
Applications of optical instruments
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Working of a compound microscope
Parts of compound microscope
Diagram of compound microscope
Ray diagram
Magnification Formula
Resolution of compound microscope
COMPOUND TELESCOPE
Working of a compound telescope
Parts of compound telescope
Diagram of compound telescope
Ray diagram
Magnification Formula
Resolution of compound telescope
CONCLUSION
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS : INTRODUCTION
Optical instruments are the
devices which process light
wave to enhance an image fo
r more clear view. Use of a
n optical instruments, such
as a magnifying lens or any
complicated device like mic
roscope or telescope usuall
y makes things bigger and h
elps us to see in a more de
tailed manner. The use of c
onverging lenses makes thin
gs appear larger and on the
other hand, diverging lense
s always gets you smaller i
mages.
While using a converging lens, it’s important
to remember that, if an object is at a larger d
istance then the image is diminished and will b
e very nearer to the focal point. While the obj
ect keeps on moving in the direction of the len
s, the image moves beyond the focal point and e
nlarges. When object is placed at 2F, which is
two times the focal distance from the lens, the
image and object becomes of the same size. When
the object moves from 2F towards the focal poin
t (F), it’s image keeps moving out of the lens
and enlarges till it goes to infinity when the
object reaches the focal point, F. As the objec
t moves closer to the lens, the image moves in
the direction of the lens from negative infinit
y and gets smaller when the object gets closer
to lens.
 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Multiple Lenses:

There are many devices like telescopes and micr

oscopes which uses multiple lenses to create im
ages.Analyzing any system having multiple lense
s shows that it works in stages where each lens
forms an image of the object. The original obje
ct will work as the object for the first lens a
nd creates an image. This new image will be the
object for the second lens and so on. You can s
ee this with these examples.
 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A compound microscope is an instru
ment that is used to view magnifie
d images of small objects on a gla
ss slide. It can achieve higher le
vels of magnification than stereo
or other low power microscopes and
reduce chromatic aberration. It ac
hieves this through the use of two
or more lenses in the objective an
d the eyepiece. The objective lens
or objectives located on the nosep
iece have a short focal length and
are close to the target object whe
re it collects light and focuses t
he image of the object into the mi
croscope. The second lens, in the
eyepiece, has a longer focal lengt
h and further enlarges the image.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE : CHARACTERISTICS

Two or more convex lenses

Typical magnification range between 40x and
1000x
One objective is used at a time
Two-dimensional images
Available in monocular, binocular and trinocular
configurations
PARTS OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A COMPOUND
MICROSCOPE
The compound microscope is most commonly used in clinical and e
ducational laboratories. It has a combination of lenses that en
hances both magnifying power as well as the resolving power. Th
e specimen or object, to be examined is usually mounted on a tr
ansparent glass slide and positioned on the specimen stage betw
een the condenser lens and objective lens.
A beam of visible light from the base is focused by a condenser
lens onto the specimen. The objective lens picks up the light t
ransmitted by the specimen and create a magnified image of the
specimen called primary image inside the body tube. This image
is again magnified by the ocular lens or eye piece.
When higher magnification is required, the nose piece is rotate
d after low power focusing to bring the objective of higher pow
er (generally 45X) in line with the illuminated part of the sli
de. The objective lens comes very near the cover slip but it do
es not touch the same. Only fine adjustment it moved for proper
focusing. More light may be required. After observation under h
igh power, the nose piece is rotated to bring back the slide un
der low power.
Occasionally very high magnification it required (e.g. for obs
erving bacterial cell). In that case, oil immersion objective
lens (usually 100X) is employed. After focusing under low powe
r a drop of immersion oil (e.g. cedar oil, olive oil) placed o
ver the illuminated part of the cover-slip.
The nose piece is rotated to bring the oil immersion lens in l
ine with die specimen. It comes in contact with the oil. By us
ing fine adjustment only, the specimen is brought under focus.
Immersion oil increases the sharpness of the image. Soon after
observation, both the lens and the slide are cleared of the oi
l by fine cotton cloth or lens paper.
The common light microscope is also called bright field micros
cope because the image is produced amidst a brightly illuminat
ed field. The image appears darker because the specimen or obj
ect is denser and somewhat opaque than the surroundings. Part
of the light passing through or object is absorbed. Bright fie
ld microscope is used [or study or preserved and stained mater
ial as well as live and unstained object or material. However,
differentiation is poor in case of live unstained specimen. Sp
ecial microscopes for their study are dark field, phase contra
st and differential interference contract microscopes.
When a small object OP
is placed at distance
p just before the focu
s of objective then a
real, inverted and mag
nified image IQ is for
med at distance q whic
h falls within the foc
us of eye-piece. The e
ye-piece is used as ma
gnifying glass and it
takes up the image IQ
as an object and since
it lies within the foc
al length of eye-piece
then it forms a virtua
l and much magnified f
inal image I'Q' as sho
wn below. Ray diagram of compound
microscope
 MAGNIFICATION OF COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A bright-field or compound microscope is primarily used to enlarge or magn
ify the image of the object that is being viewed, which can not otherwise
be seen by the naked eye. Magnification may be defined as the degree of en
largement of the image of an object provided by the microscope.
Magnification by a microscope is the product of the individual magnifying
ability of the oculars and the objectives. For example if the ocular is 10
X, and objective is 40X, the specimen is magnified 400 times. If an oil im
mersion objective (100X) is used along with 10X ocular, the specimen is ma
gnified 1000 times.
The following factors play an important role in magnification:
(i) Optical tube length.
(ii) Focal length of the objective lens.
(iii) Magnifying ability of the ocular.
The total magnification of the object-image can be calculated using the fo
llowing equation:
Total magnification = Length of the optical tube/Focal length of t
he objective x Magnification of ocular.
Theoretically, if the magnifying power of the ocular and objectives of a c
ompound microscope are increased, it should be possible to get higher and
higher magnifications.
A magnification up to 3000 can be obtained by using high powered lenses, b
ut the image will be blurred and details will not be clear. This is due to
the fact that in a microscope not only the lenses, but the wave length of
the light is also important and this decides the resolving power of the mi
croscope.
 RESOLUTION OF COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Resolution power (resolving power) of a bright-field o
r compound microscope is defined as its ability to dis
tinguish between two particles situated very close. In
a magnified image, the object should not only larger b
ut the details should also be clear.
This is possible when a microscope has the ability to
see two points situated very close as two distinct ent
ities. In other words, resolution power may be said to
be the minimum distance at which two structural entiti
es of an object can be seen as discrete individual str
uctures even in the magnified image.

This explanation can be understood clearly with a comp

arison with the human eye. Human eye functions on the
same principal as that of a bright-field or light micr
oscope, i.e., one can see objects because of the light
reflected by them.
The human eye has a resolving power about 0.25 mm in t
he sense, two dots situated 0.25 mm (or more) apart ca
n only be seen as two dots; anything closer than this
distance will appear like a single dot.
two factors:
(a) Wave length of the light and
Factors
(b) Numerical aperature (NA)ofofResolution Power
the objective.
(a) Wave length of the light:
In light (bright field) microscopes, the wave length of the light use
d for illumination falls in the visible range (400-750 nm). If light
of shorter wave length is used within this range the resolution will
be higher. For example, blue light has a shorter wavelength than red
light. Greater resolution can be obtained by using a blue light as a
source of illumination than a red light.
(b) Numerical aperture (NA) of the Objective:
Numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the property of a lens that det
ermines the quantity of light that can enter into it. It depends on t
wo factors.
(i) Refractive index of the medium that fills the space between the s
pecimen and the front of the objective lens, and
(ii) The angular aperture, i.e., the angle between the most divergent
rays passing through the lens and optical axis of the lens. (The more
divergent or oblique rays that an objective can admit, greater is the
resolution power).
Numerical aperture (NA) can be mathematically calculated with the hel
p of following formula.
NA = n sin f
Where, n = refractive index of the medium
f = angular aperature
Calculation of Resolution Power:

The resolution power of a bright-field microscope can be calcul

ated using the following formula:
Resolution (resolving) power (RP) = Wave length of light used f
or illumination/2 x Numerical aperture (NA)
For convenience, if yellow light of wave length of 580 nm with
numerical aperture (NA) of 1.0 is used in the microscope, the r
esolution power (RP) of the microscope will be:
Resolution power (RP) = 580/2 x 1 = 290 nm
 COMPOUND
Compound or catadioptric TELESCOPE
telescopes a
re hybrid telescopes that have a mix
of refractor and reflector elements i
n their design. The first compound te
lescope was made by German astronomer
Bernhard Schmidt in 1930. The Schmidt
telescope had a primary mirror at the
back of the telescope, and a glass co
rrector plate in the front of the tel
escope to remove spherical aberration
. The telescope was used primarily fo
r photography, because it had no seco
ndary mirror or eyepieces -- instead,
photographic film was placed at the p
rime focus of the primary mirror. Tod
ay, the Schmidt-Cassegrain design, wh
ich was invented in the 1960s, is the
most popular type of telescope; it us
es a secondary mirror that bounces li
ght through a hole in the primary mir
ror to an eyepiece.
 WORKING OF COMPOUND
Thesetelescopes are also known as catadio
TELESCOPE
ptrictelescopes. Compound telescopes are
optical telescopes that work on the simple
principles of reflection. The structure of
a compound telescope is fairly simple. A c
ompound telescope has an eyepiece also kno
wn as a corrector lens or plate. The conca
ve side of the eyepiece faces the outside.
The area around the center of the convex s
ide of the eyepiece is painted into a mirr
or. This is called the secondary spot. The
re are primary curved plane mirrors on eit
her side of the opening of the optical tub
e.
light enters through the upper and lower e
dges of the eyepiece since they are rays t
raveling from a long distance. They hit th
e mirrors and reflect off in such a way th
at the light lands on the area of the seco
nd spot where they get reflected again and
the light rays meet at the opening of the
optical tube creating a virtual image behi
nd the secondary spot.The plane mirrors ar
e on sliders which allowadjusting for clea
rer images.
PARTS OF COMPOUND
TELESCOPE
MAGNIFICATION OF TELESCOPE
As the image gets magnified for the observer, the position of each feat
ure in the image moves to a larger and larger angle off the centerline
(i.e. the line looking straight ahead). Hence the magnification can be
figured as the ratio of the angle seen at the eyepiece to the angle see
n by the objective lens. For our analysis let's define some terms:
Angle seen at objective = θO
Angle seen at eyepiece = θe
We will also define the focal length of each lens, that is, the distanc
e from the lens where it focuses light to a point.
Focal length of objective = fO
Focal length of eyepiece = fe
We can use the diagram above to find the magnification for this telesco
pe. Light rays from a distant point arrive at the objective in parallel
. The ray that passes through the center of the lens is important for t
he analysis, because that ray (unlike the others) is not bent and forms
a straight line through the lens.
Then the angle of this incoming ray from the centerline, θO, is the sa
me at the front and the back of the lens. Follow this line (the blue li
ne) from the center of the objective to the focal point. The focal poin
t, by definition, sits at distance fO from the objective, and we will p
ostulate that this particular point sits at distance h above the center
line at the focal plane.
We can then find θO, in radians, as approximately equal to h/fO.
Now follow the red line from the focal plane to the center of the
eyepiece and you can see that, likewise, the angle at the eyepiece
, θe can be found as h/fe.
Then the telescope's magnification will be

and after we cancel the h's in top & bottom and rearrange
we get
 CONCLUSION

Based on the property of reflection an

d refraction many optical instruments
have been designed to understand the b
ehavior of light more better. Based on
total internal reflection the phenomen
on like mirage , transmission through
optical fibres, property of diamond co
uld be well understood. Likewise other
optical instruments like microscope ,t
elescope etc has been designed to help
in the advancement of technology and r
esearch studies.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

NCERT BOOK
comprehensive physics
Wikipedia.com
www.scribd.com