Dairy and Food Engineering

Lecture No. 5
Process flow charts for product manufacture - unit
operations of various dairy and food processing systems
- milk receiving - principles and equipment - quantity
determination - quality evaluation - milk grading -
cleaning and sanitation of milk handling equipment -
facilities - procedures for reception and returns.
 Unit operations of various dairy and food
processing systems

Separation
 mechanical separation by centrifugal forces

Separation according to physical condition

Liquid- Liquid Eg: cream- Separated milk
Liquid- Solid Eg.: Whey- Casein
Gaseous- Solid Eg. Air- Milk Powder
Gaseous- Liquid Eg. Vapor- concentrated milk
 Applications in dairy Industry

Separation of whole milk into cream and separated milk

Separating out contaminations and undesirable
Microorganisms
Standardizing liquid milk for consumption i.e adjustment of
fat content
Stabilization of liquid milk consumption i.e to prevent
cream separation by partial homogenization
Fractionation of crystals
Lactose manufacture
Separation of dried powder from exhaust air
Separation of concentrated milks from vapors
Process flow chart for product manufacture

Milk Receiving
 Unloading, grading, conveying, sampling, testing, weighing or
measuring and recording, dumping and pumping
Unloading
 Milk brought either in cans or in tankers is unloaded
Milk cans
 As soon as vehicle carrying milk in cans arrives at the reception
dock, the cans are unloaded manually and generally placed on
the conveyors
Conveying
Milk cans are placed on gravity roller or power chain
conveyor. The lids are removed and each can is
subjected to rapid sensory evaluation and some
preliminary tests to decide the acceptance or
rejection of the milk.
Conveyors
Conveying systems and related devices must be considered in
connection with efficient materials handling to provide direct
and continuous flow from a point of origin to the ultimate
destination.
The conveyor system should be simple, direct, flexible, and
free from trouble spots.
It should have proper elevation at all points, and easy to clean,
lubricate and maintain.
Sharp curves, sudden changes of elevation switching of
various size packages and other tasks can be handled without
difficulty.
Examination of Raw Milk
Raw milk has to pass through rigorous examination
which may include organoleptic, physical and
chemical tests to assess the quality of intake milk
rapidly, and decide for its acceptance or rejection. All
these tests known as “platform tests” are performed
on each can/tanker to assess the quality of the
incoming milk. The classification of milk on the basis
of quality is usually referred to “grading of milk”
A good quality product cannot be made from bad
quality raw ingredients.
Quality and composition of raw milk must be
checked for freshness, hygiene and conformity to the
legal standards.
The main purposes of examination of raw milk at
reception dock are assessment of
 Freshness
 hygienic quality, and
 composition
Organoleptic tests
Organoleptic or sensory tests are performed with the
help of five sensing organs, viz. eye, nose, tongue, ear
and skin. The general appearnce, cleanliness, colour,
taste and smell of milk are tested before emptying
the transport containers
Preliminary tests: Preliminary tests as discussed
below. These are simple and rapid physical-chemical
tests which can be performed easily on the reception
dock:
 Clot-On-Boiling (C.O.B.)
 Alcohol test
 Titratable acidity (T.A.)
Tilting/Emptying of Milk Cans
Acceptable milk in cans are lifted manually from the
conveyor, rested on floor mounted can tipping cross
bar padded with rubber and tilted to drain the milk
into weigh bowl
Weighing/Measuring and Recording of Milk
The milk in cans is dumped into the weigh tank/bowl, of single
or double compartment, either manually or mechanically.
The stainless steel weigh bowl of 250 or 500 Kg capacity is
attached to a circular dial weigh scale and the portion towards
the outlet valve overhangs with anti-splash stainless steel
strainer.
The outlet valve of weigh bowl is suited for manual or air
actuated operation.
The operator makes direct reading of the weight of the milk on
the scale and records it separately for individual suppliers.
Automatic printing of weight is also possible
Sampling of Milk
Samples may be drawn during reception of milk for
chemical and microbiological analysis in the
laboratory.
Only representative sample, without any type of
adulteration, dilution and contamination should be
drawn using correct technique and appropriate device
Sampling methods: Sample should be taken after
thorough mixing of milk with the help of plunger or
sampler (devices) or some other means
Dumping of Milk
After weighing and recording, the milk can be discharged
into the dump tank situated below through stainless steel
chute between the weigh bowl and dump tank.
Dump tank should be of sufficient capacity to avoid delay
or overflow of milk, at least one and half times but not
more than 3 times the capacity of the weigh bowl.
An electronic milk level control may be installed in the
dump tank to eliminate the possibility of loss of milk
from overflow
 CLEANING AND SANITIZATION OF MILK CANS AND
TANKERS

Cleaning is done to remove the residues of milk from

the surface of the utensils
Sanitization is done to destroy all types of micro-
organisms present on the surface of the utensils and
equipments
 Types of Washers

The types of washers include manual washing,

mechanical washing and cleaning in place
Manual washing
Small plants are not equipped with mechanical can
washers and employ manual washing methods.
Manual washing can be aided by installation of can
washing trough, can scrubber, and can rinsing and
steaming block.
These tools will be helpful in reducing the manual
brushing, rinsing and sanitizing the cans
Mechanical washing
In mechanical washing, the can is usually passed
over a succession of jets emitting water, cleaning
solution, hot water, steam and air. Where the
operation is big and manual washing is considered
difficult and uneconomical, washing is done
mechanically. Mechanical can washers are of two
types
 Rotary type
 Straight through or tunnel type
Rotary type
One man is required to place the cans and lids in inverted
position in the machine and remove them after washing and
drying.
The can and lid are moved through a rotating platform
divided into sections.
A series of tanks of solutions are located under the platform.
Cans get continuous spray of various solutions both inside
and outside through circulating pumps and solutions return
to respective tanks.
The rotary washer rotates at intervals
Straight through or tunnel type
In this type, empty can and lid in inverted position
enter into the tunnel at one end of the conveyor and
come out at the other end after getting cleaned,
rinsed, sterilized and dried in straight-up position.
The main operations involved are: pre-rinsing with
clean water, steam sterilization, detergent solution
washing, hot water rinsing and hot air drying.
All these operations are carried out in quick
succession and the process is continuous
Cleaning-in-place
The permanent line as well as equipment remain intact during the cleaning and sterilizing
procedures.

Milk tankers can be cleaned by this method.

The modern dairies are equipped with CIP system of cleaning which is controlled by electronic
device.

The cleaning operations are programmed according to the need and the operations have to make
necessary connection for the proper flow of liquids.

The CIP system consists of essentially 3 tanks, namely cold water, hot water and detergent or lye
tank, and an automatic electronically controlled panel.

The route sequence selection may be manual, semi or fully automatic.

The sequences are programmed operations controlled by card, tape or microprocessor

 Sanitizing Systems

Cleaning is followed by sanitizing. Sanitizing is done

chemically or by hot water or steam to kill
pathogenic organisms and nearly all non-pathogenic
organisms.
Dairy equipment can be sanitized with application of
one of the following methods

Flushing: All equipment and piping are assembled

and flushed out with a hypochlorite solution
Spraying and brushing of equipment
Fogging: sanitizing solutions may also be applied
by air pressure or atomizing solution in form of a
mist or fog.
The minimum chlorine strength should be 400 ppm
and the strength at the discharge end around 100
ppm.
To avoid corrosion, the chlorine should not stand in
the tank longer than 30 minutes
Submersion: Small parts, pails and certain utensils may
best be sanitized by submersion in a sanitizing solution
Working principles of equipment for Receiving
Raw fresh milk is received at the processing plant in cans
directly from a producer or from a collection centre.
The milk-receiving platform at dairy plant is elevated to
facilitate convenient handling of cans.
Also the space planning is such that cans are received and
stored at the platform/ dock for unloading
Cans are emptied one by one into a weighing unit
comprising of a calibrated weigh balance and weigh
bowl.
Normally it takes 20-30 seconds to handle one can.
Hence, 2- 3 cans will be handled in a minute.
Accordingly milk reception rate will be 100 litres of
milk/minute; hence, around 6000-litres milk can be
received in an hour.
This simple calculation will help in deciding the
equipment required for further handling
Reception Dock
Milk reception dock will have a weighing machine, a can
steaming block, can washer, temporary storage after
weighing called as dump tank, a high capacity milk pump
(Figure-2.3) for pumping milk from this tank to a chiller.
This cools the milk on line before it reaches into a storage
tank.
The chiller is usually a plate heat exchanger type unit,
which cools milk almost instantaneously.
The section also has a small laboratory to conduct
platform test and recording of the milk being received
Storage Tanks
The raw milk storage tanks are usually double walled
horizontal stainless steel tanks.
These are insulated tanks, to prevent increase in the
temperature of chilled milk.
These are from 2000 litres to 10,000 litres in size,
depending upon on the planned capacity of dairy
plant.
This may or may not be installed at the reception
dock
Can-steaming Blocks and Can Washer
A can-steaming block is provided to sterilize the can.
Inverted can is placed over this unit and steaming is done to a cleaned
can.
Inverted cans are placed after milk is emptied into weighing machine.
Inverted can moves in a round and cleaning is done during various
stages of can washer rotation.
A can washer has provision for ordinary water wash, detergent wash,
hot water wash and rinsing. Hot clean can should come out of this unit.
All spray nozzles are maintained to give high-pressure spray. Also the
strength of detergent and its temperature is maintained for better
cleaning
After the milk is received, clean warm water is
supplied through same route as that of milk.
Detergent washing is also carried out followed by
ordinary water wash to ensure complete cleaning of
all equipment used at the reception dock.
Finally, do not forget to drain this equipment and
dry them, and also clean the floor and surroundings
 Dairy and Food Engineering

Lecture No. 6
Pasteurization - purpose - introduction to
microorganisms - enzymes and their reaction to
temperature and other influences - bacteria in milk.
Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process in which
water and certain packaged and non-packaged foods (such
as milk and fruit juice) are treated with mild heat, usually
to less than 100 °C (212 °F), to eliminate pathogens and
extend shelf life.
The process is intended to destroy or deactivate organisms
and enzymes that contribute to spoilage or risk of disease,
including vegetative bacteria, but not bacterial spores.
Since pasteurization is not sterilization, and does not kill
spores, a second "double" pasteurization will extend the
quality by killing spores that have germinated
A microorganism, or microbe, is a microscopic organism,
which may exist in its single-celled form or in a colony of cells.
The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected
from ancient times, such as in Jain scriptures from 6th
century BC India and the 1st century BC book On
Agriculture by Marcus Terentius Varro.
The scientific study of microorganisms began with their
observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Antonie
van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that
microorganisms caused food spoilage
In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms
caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera and anthrax.
 Food production

Microorganisms are used in a fermentation process

to make yoghurt, cheese, curd, kefir, ayran, xynogala,
and other types of food. Fermentation cultures
provide flavor and aroma, and inhibit undesirable
organisms. 
They are used to leaven bread, and to convert sugars
 to alcohol in wine and beer. Microorganisms are
used in brewing, wine making, baking, pickling and
other food-making processes
Microbes are important in human culture and health in
many ways, serving to ferment foods, treat sewage, 
produce fuel, enzymes and other bioactive compounds.
They are essential tools in biology as model organisms and
have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism.
They are a vital component of fertile soils.
In the human body microorganisms make up the human
microbiota including the essential gut flora.
They are the pathogens responsible for many 
infectious diseases and as such are the target of 
hygiene measures
 Enzymes

Enzymes are both proteins and biological catalysts (
biocatalysts).
Catalysts accelerate chemical reactions. The molecules upon
which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the
enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules
known as products.
Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need 
enzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to
sustain life. 
Metabolic pathways depend upon enzymes to catalyze
individual steps. The study of enzymes is called enzymology
Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the reaction rate by
lowering its activation energy. Some enzymes can make
their conversion of substrate to product occur many
millions of times faster
Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not
consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the 
equilibrium of a reaction. Enzymes differ from most
other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme
activity can be affected by other molecules: inhibitors
 are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and 
activators are molecules that increase activity
An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its
optimal temperature and pH, and many enzymes are
(permanently) denatured when exposed to excessive
heat, losing their structure and catalytic properties
Applications of enzymes
 Temperature effect on enzymatic activity

Like most chemical reactions, the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

increases as the temperature is raised.
A ten degree Centigrade rise in temperature will increase the activity of most
enzymes by 50 to 100%.
Variations in reaction temperature as small as 1 or 2 degrees may introduce
changes of 10 to 20% in the results. In the case of enzymatic reactions, this is
complicated by the fact that many enzymes are adversely affected by high
temperatures.
The reaction rate increases with temperature to a maximum level, then
abruptly declines with further increase of temperature. Because most animal
enzymes rapidly become denatured at temperatures above 40°C, most enzyme
determinations are carried out somewhat below that temperature.
Over a period of time, enzymes will be deactivated at even moderate
temperatures. Storage of enzymes at 5°C or below is generally the most
suitable. Some enzymes lose their activity when frozen.
Effects of pH
Enzymes are affected by changes in pH. The most
favorable pH value - the point where the enzyme is
most active - is known as the optimum pH
Extremely high or low pH values generally result in
complete loss of activity for most enzymes. pH is also
a factor in the stability of enzymes. As with activity,
for each enzyme there is also a region of pH optimal
stability.
 Bacteria in milk

Milk is virtually sterile when it is synthesized in a

healthy cow's udder (mammary gland). Cows, like
humans, are natural reservoirs of bacteria. Many of
these bacteria are not harmful to humans, but some
may be harmful to humans even though the cows are
not affected and appear healthy
Milk may become contaminated with bacteria during
or after milking. The mammary glands of cows (and
humans) can become inflamed due to a bacterial
infection called mastitis
During a mastitis infection, very high numbers of
bacteria present can be in the udder and in the milk.
Some disease causing organisms (pathogens) can be
shed through cow feces and may contaminate the
outside of the udder and teats, the farm environment
(bedding, for example) and the milking equipment.
Although optimal growth conditions for bacteria are
different for different organisms, milk contains
important nutritional components for mammal
growth, and, therefore, it is also an ideal medium for
the growth of many different bacteria.
Objectives of pasteurization:
To render milk safe for consumption by destruction
of cent percent pathogenic micro-organisms,
To improve keeping quality of milk by destruction of
almost all spoilage organisms (85 to 99%)
Pasteurization is a process which slows microbial
growth in food.
This process was named after its creator, French
chemist and Microbiologist Louis pasteur (Father
of microbiology).
The process was originally conceived as a way of
preventing wine and beer from souring
 Methods of pasteurization

Low Temperature long time treatment (LTLT):

 Milk is heated at 630C and hold for 30 min and promptly
cooled to 50C or below.
High Temperature short time Treatment (HTST):
 Milk is heated to 710C and holding time is 15 sec.
Ultra high temperature pasteurization (UHT):
 Very high temperature 135 to 1500C are used to heat the
products and almost no holding time is given. However a max
of 3 sec. is allowed.
 The milk should be aesthetically packed immediately after heat
processing
Manufacture of pasteurized milk (Flow Chart)
Grading:
It is the classification of milk based on the quality for
prize fixing purpose.
The principle of grading is based on organoleptic
tests such as smell, appearance, taste, touch etc. It is
well known that qualify of finished product depends
on that of raw material used.
The milk grader is the key man for proper selection
of milk
Sampling: Taking milk sampler from each lot &
putting them for different tests. The importance of
securing on accurate and representative sample of
milk for subsequent chemical and bacteriological
analysis
Weighing: This is an essential step in accounting
for milk receipts and disposal, making payments for
milk etc. by weight or volume displacement method
the milk is weighed
Testing: All the accepted lots after inertial platform tests are
tested in quality control laboratory, for final acceptance or
rejection. Various tests that are carried out in quality control
laboratory are acidity, PH of milk, direct microscopic count,
lactometer test, fat & SNF & freezing point depression test
Preheating: preheating become essential if the incoming
milk is cold, the flow of milk is hampered. As the
temperature of milk increases, the viscosity decreases &
move efficient filtration or clarification results.
The usual temperature of preheating is 35-45 0C. The
equipment used for this purpose is plate or tubular heat
exchanger
Filtration: The purpose of carrying out this operation is to
improve the quality of milk by remaining usable foreign
matter; filtration removes suspended foreign particulars by
straining process. Whereas clarification removes the by
centrifugal sedimentation
Cooling and Storage: The common milk micro organisms
best grow between 20 & 400C. The growth of micro organisms
is arrested by storing milk at a lower temp. the growth of
micro organisms deteriorates the quality & produce off flavor.
Modern milk plants hold both raw & pasteurized milk for a
much longer periods normally the milk storage capacity is
equal to one day intake
Standardization: It is done by adding milk or cream
with higher or lower fat percentage of addition of
skimmed milk to a given milk
Pasteurization: Every particle of milk is heated 630C
for 30 min of 720C for 15 sec. of any time temp
combination can be equally efficient
Bottling / Packaging: Pasteurized and cooled milk is
promptly bottled / package so as to profiting the milk
against contamination, loss, longer or degradation &
helping in the sale & distribution of milk