INTRODUCTION

• If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator (or fan)—as
the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since the room is well-sealed
and well-insulated, the only energy interaction involved is the electrical energy
crossing the system boundary and entering the room.
• As a result of the conversion of electric energy consumed by the device to
heat, the room temperature will rise.

A fan running in a
well-sealed and
well-insulated room
will raise the
temperature of air in
the room.

A refrigerator
operating with its
door open in a well-
sealed and well-
insulated room 1
 FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
• Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
• Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
• Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of
a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
• Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that
a system possesses as a result of its
motion relative to some reference
frame.
• Potential energy, PE: The energy
that a system possesses as a result
of its elevation in a gravitational field. 2
 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy
per unit mass

Mass flow rate

Potential energy

Potential energy
per unit mass Energy flow rate

Total energy of
a system

Energy of a system
per unit mass

Total energy
per unit mass 3
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 Some Physical Insight to
Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion
of the internal energy of a
system associated with the
kinetic energies of the
molecules.
Latent energy: The internal
energy associated with the
phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The
tremendous amount of energy
associated with the strong
bonds within the nucleus of the
atom itself.

Thermal = Sensible + Latent

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Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
• The total energy of a system, can
be contained or stored in a system,
and thus can be viewed as the
static forms of energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in a
system can be viewed as the
dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions.
• The dynamic forms of energy are
recognized at the system boundary
as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a
system during a process.
• The only two forms of energy
interactions associated with a
closed system are heat transfer
and work.

• The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is

heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is
work. 6
Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such
as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy of a
flowing fluid per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy

of a flowing fluid

Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

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ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

9
Heat transfer
per unit mass
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
is constant
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
changes with time

10
 Historical Background on Heat
• Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as
tiny balls that are in motion and thus
possess kinetic energy.
• Heat: The energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and
molecules.
Heat transfer mechanisms:
• Conduction: The transfer of energy
from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction
between particles.
• Convection: The transfer of energy
between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
• Radiation: The transfer of energy due
to the emission of electromagnetic
waves (or photons). 11
 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
 A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
• Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
• Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.

Work done per

unit mass

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 Heat vs. Work
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of
a system as they cross the boundaries.
That is, both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
• Systems possess energy, but not heat or
work.
• Both are associated with a process, not a
state.
• Unlike properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end
states).

Properties are point functions

have exact differentials (d ).
Path functions
have inexact
differentials ( ) 13
Electrical Work
Electrical work

Electrical power

When potential difference

and current change with time

When potential difference

and current remain constant

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 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
• There are two requirements for a work interaction between a
system and its surroundings to exist:
 there must be a force acting on the boundary.
 the boundary must move.

Work = Force  Distance

When force is not constant

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 A force F acting through
a moment arm r
Shaft Work generates a torque T

This force acts through a distance s

Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft
is the shaft work done per unit time

16
When the length of the spring changes by
a differential amount dx under the influence
Spring Work
of a force F, the work done is Substituting and integrating yield

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x1 and x2: the initial and the final
x is proportional to the force applied displacements
k: spring constant (kN/m)

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Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
1. The work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to
the change in the potential energy of the body.
2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a body is
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.

Nonmechanical Forms of Work

Electrical work: The generalized force is
the voltage (the electrical potential) and the
generalized displacement is the electrical
charge.
Magnetic work: The generalized force is
the magnetic field strength and the
generalized displacement is the total
magnetic dipole moment.
Electrical polarization work: The
generalized force is the electric field
strength and the generalized displacement
is the polarization of the medium.
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 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy
principle) provides a sound basis for studying the relationships
among the various forms of energy and energy interactions.
• The first law states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.

The First Law: For

all adiabatic
processes between
two specified states
of a closed system,
the net work done
is the same
regardless of the
nature of the closed
system and the
details of the
process.
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Energy Balance

The net change (increase

or decrease) in the total
energy of the system
during a process is equal
to the difference between
the total energy entering
and the total energy
leaving the system during
that process.

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Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Internal, kinetic, and

potential energy changes

23
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

24
Mechanisms • Heat transfer A closed mass
of energy • Work transfer involves only heat
transfer: • Mass flow transfer and work.

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 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
• The conversion of energy from one form to another
often affects the environment and the air we breathe in
many ways, and thus the study of energy is not
complete without considering its impact on the
environment.
• Pollutants emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels
are responsible for smog, acid rain, and global
warming.
• The environmental pollution has reached such high
levels that it became a serious threat to vegetation,
wild life, and human health.

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