Data Warehousing & Data Mining:

— Unit 1 —

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 Why Data Mining?

• The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes

– Data collection and data availability
• Automated data collection tools, database systems,
Web, computerized society
– Major sources of abundant data
• Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, …
• Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific
simulation, …
• Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, YouTube
• We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!
• “Necessity is the mother of invention”—Data mining—
Automated analysis of massive data sets
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 Evolution of Sciences
• Before 1600, empirical science
• 1600-1950s, theoretical science
– Each discipline has grown a theoretical component. Theoretical models
often motivate experiments and generalize our understanding.
• 1950s-1990s, computational science
– Over the last 50 years, most disciplines have grown a third, computational
branch (e.g. empirical, theoretical, and computational ecology, or physics,
or linguistics.)
– Computational Science traditionally meant simulation. It grew out of our
inability to find closed-form solutions for complex mathematical models.
• 1990-now, data science
– The flood of data from new scientific instruments and simulations
– The ability to economically store and manage petabytes of data online
– The Internet and computing Grid that makes all these archives universally
accessible
– Scientific info. management, acquisition, organization, query, and
visualization tasks scale almost linearly with data volumes. Data mining
is a major new challenge!
3
• Jim Gray and Alex Szalay, The World Wide Telescope: An Archetype for Online
 Evolution of Database Technology
• 1960s:
– Data collection, database creation, IMS and network DBMS
• 1970s:
– Relational data model, relational DBMS implementation
• 1980s:
– RDBMS, advanced data models (extended-relational, OO,
deductive, etc.)
– Application-oriented DBMS (spatial, scientific, engineering, etc.)
• 1990s:
– Data mining, data warehousing, multimedia databases, and Web
databases
• 2000s
– Stream data management and mining
– Data mining and its applications
– Web technology (XML, data integration) and global information
4
systems
 What Is Data Mining?

• Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)

– Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously
unknown and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge
from huge amount of data
– Data mining: a misnomer?
• Alternative names
– Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD),
knowledge extraction, data/pattern analysis, data
archeology, data dredging, information harvesting,
business intelligence, etc.
• Watch out: Is everything “data mining”?
– Simple search and query processing
– (Deductive) expert systems
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 Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process
• This is a view from typical
database systems and data
Pattern Evaluation
warehousing communities
• Data mining plays an
essential role in the
knowledge discovery process Data Mining

Task-relevant Data

Data Warehouse Selection

Data Cleaning

Data Integration

Databases 6
 Example: A Web Mining
Framework
• Web mining usually involves
– Data cleaning
– Data integration from multiple sources
– Warehousing the data
– Data cube construction
– Data selection for data mining
– Data mining
– Presentation of the mining results
– Patterns and knowledge to be used or stored
into knowledge-base

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 Data Mining in Business Intelligence

Increasing potential
to support
business decisions End User
Decision
Making

Data Presentation Business

Analyst
Visualization Techniques
Data Mining Data
Information Discovery Analyst

Data Exploration
Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting

Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses

DBA
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems
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 Example: Mining vs. Data Exploration

• Business intelligence view

– Warehouse, data cube, reporting but not
much mining
• Business objects vs. data mining tools
• Supply chain example: tools
• Data presentation
• Exploration

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 KDD Process: A Typical View from ML and
Statistics

Input Data Data Pre- Data Post-

Processing Mining Processing

Data integration Pattern discovery Pattern evaluation

Normalization Association & correlation Pattern selection
Feature selection Classification Pattern interpretation
Clustering
Dimension reduction Pattern visualization
Outlier analysis
…………

• This is a view from typical machine learning and statistics

communities 10
 Example: Medical Data Mining

• Health care & medical data mining – often

adopted such a view in statistics and machine
learning
• Preprocessing of the data (including feature
extraction and dimension reduction)
• Classification or/and clustering processes
• Post-processing for presentation

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 Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
• Data to be mined
– Database data (extended-relational, object-oriented,
heterogeneous, legacy), data warehouse, transactional data,
stream, spatiotemporal, time-series, sequence, text and web,
multi-media, graphs & social and information networks
• Knowledge to be mined (or: Data mining functions)
– Characterization, discrimination, association, classification,
clustering, trend/deviation, outlier analysis, etc.
– Descriptive vs. predictive data mining
– Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels
• Techniques utilized
– Data-intensive, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning,
statistics, pattern recognition, visualization, high-performance,
etc.
• Applications adapted
– Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data
mining, stock market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc.12
 Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data?

• Database-oriented data sets and applications

– Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database
• Advanced data sets and advanced applications
– Data streams and sensor data
– Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-
sequences)
– Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
– Object-relational databases
– Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
– Spatial data and spatiotemporal data
– Multimedia database
– Text databases
– The World-Wide Web
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Data Mining Function: (1) Generalization

• Information integration and data warehouse

construction
– Data cleaning, transformation, integration,
and multidimensional data model
• Data cube technology
– Scalable methods for computing (i.e.,
materializing) multidimensional aggregates
– OLAP (online analytical processing)
• Multidimensional concept description:
Characterization and discrimination
– Generalize, summarize, and contrast data
characteristics, e.g., dry vs. wet region 14
 Data Mining Function: (2) Association and
Correlation Analysis
• Frequent patterns (or frequent itemsets)
– What items are frequently purchased
together in your Walmart?
• Association, correlation vs. causality
– A typical association rule
• Diaper  Beer [0.5%, 75%] (support,
confidence)
– Are strongly associated items also strongly
correlated?
• How to mine such patterns and rules efficiently in
large datasets?
• How to use such patterns for classification, 15
 Data Mining Function: (3) Classification

• Classification and label prediction

– Construct models (functions) based on some training
examples
– Describe and distinguish classes or concepts for future
prediction
• E.g., classify countries based on (climate), or classify
cars based on (gas mileage)
– Predict some unknown class labels
• Typical methods
– Decision trees, naïve Bayesian classification, support
vector machines, neural networks, rule-based
classification, pattern-based classification, logistic
regression, …
• Typical applications:
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– Credit card fraud detection, direct marketing, classifying
Data Mining Function: (4) Cluster Analysis

• Unsupervised learning (i.e., Class label is unknown)

• Group data to form new categories (i.e., clusters),
e.g., cluster houses to find distribution patterns
• Principle: Maximizing intra-class similarity &
minimizing interclass similarity
• Many methods and applications

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Data Mining Function: (5) Outlier Analysis

• Outlier analysis
– Outlier: A data object that does not comply with the
general behavior of the data
– Noise or exception? ― One person’s garbage could be
another person’s treasure
– Methods: by product of clustering or regression analysis, …
– Useful in fraud detection, rare events analysis

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Time and Ordering: Sequential Pattern, Trend and
Evolution Analysis

• Sequence, trend and evolution analysis

– Trend, time-series, and deviation analysis: e.g.,
regression and value prediction
– Sequential pattern mining
• e.g., first buy digital camera, then buy large SD
memory cards
– Periodicity analysis
– Motifs and biological sequence analysis
• Approximate and consecutive motifs
– Similarity-based analysis
• Mining data streams
– Ordered, time-varying, potentially infinite, data
streams 19
 Structure and Network Analysis
• Graph mining
– Finding frequent subgraphs (e.g., chemical compounds), trees
(XML), substructures (web fragments)
• Information network analysis
– Social networks: actors (objects, nodes) and relationships
(edges)
• e.g., author networks in CS, terrorist networks
– Multiple heterogeneous networks
• A person could be multiple information networks: friends,
family, classmates, …
– Links carry a lot of semantic information: Link mining
• Web mining
– Web is a big information network: from PageRank to Google
– Analysis of Web information networks
• Web community discovery, opinion mining, usage mining, …

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 Evaluation of Knowledge
• Are all mined knowledge interesting?
– One can mine tremendous amount of “patterns” and
knowledge
– Some may fit only certain dimension space (time, location, …)
– Some may not be representative, may be transient, …
• Evaluation of mined knowledge → directly mine only
interesting knowledge?
– Descriptive vs. predictive
– Coverage
– Typicality vs. novelty
– Accuracy
– Timeliness
– …
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Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines

Machine Pattern Statistics

Learning Recognition

Applications Data Mining Visualization

Algorithm Database High-Performance

Technology Computing

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Why Confluence of Multiple Disciplines?

• Tremendous amount of data

– Algorithms must be highly scalable to handle such as tera-
bytes of data
• High-dimensionality of data
– Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions
• High complexity of data
– Data streams and sensor data
– Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data
– Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked
data
– Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
– Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data
– Software programs, scientific simulations
• New and sophisticated applications
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 Applications of Data Mining
• Web page analysis: from web page classification, clustering
to PageRank & HITS algorithms
• Collaborative analysis & recommender systems
• Basket data analysis to targeted marketing
• Biological and medical data analysis: classification, cluster
analysis (microarray data analysis), biological sequence
analysis, biological network analysis
• Data mining and software engineering (e.g., IEEE Computer,
Aug. 2009 issue)
• From major dedicated data mining systems/tools (e.g., SAS,
MS SQL-Server Analysis Manager, Oracle Data Mining Tools)
to invisible data mining

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 Major Issues in Data Mining (1)

• Mining Methodology
– Mining various and new kinds of knowledge
– Mining knowledge in multi-dimensional space
– Data mining: An interdisciplinary effort
– Boosting the power of discovery in a networked
environment
– Handling noise, uncertainty, and incompleteness of data
– Pattern evaluation and pattern- or constraint-guided
mining
• User Interaction
– Interactive mining
– Incorporation of background knowledge
– Presentation and visualization of data mining results 25
 Major Issues in Data Mining (2)

• Efficiency and Scalability

– Efficiency and scalability of data mining algorithms
– Parallel, distributed, stream, and incremental mining
methods
• Diversity of data types
– Handling complex types of data
– Mining dynamic, networked, and global data repositories
• Data mining and society
– Social impacts of data mining
– Privacy-preserving data mining
– Invisible data mining

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 What is a Data Warehouse?

• Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.

– A decision support database that is maintained
separately from the organization’s operational database
– Support information processing by providing a solid
platform of consolidated, historical data for analysis.
• “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-
variant, and nonvolatile collection of data in support of
management’s decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon
• Data warehousing:
– The process of constructing and using data warehouses

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 Data Warehouse—Subject-
Oriented
• Organized around major subjects, such as
customer, product, sales
• Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or
transaction processing
• Provide a simple and concise view around
particular subject issues by excluding data that
are not useful in the decision support process

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 Data Warehouse—Integrated
• Constructed by integrating multiple,
heterogeneous data sources
– relational databases, flat files, on-line
transaction records
• Data cleaning and data integration techniques
are applied.
– Ensure consistency in naming conventions,
encoding structures, attribute measures, etc.
among different data sources
• E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered,
etc.
– When data is moved to the warehouse, it is
converted. 29
 Data Warehouse—Time
Variant
• The time horizon for the data warehouse is
significantly longer than that of operational
systems
– Operational database: current value data
– Data warehouse data: provide information
from a historical perspective (e.g., past 5-10
years)
• Every key structure in the data warehouse
– Contains an element of time, explicitly or
implicitly
– But the key of operational data may or may 30
 Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile
• A physically separate store of data transformed
from the operational environment
• Operational update of data does not occur in the
data warehouse environment
– Does not require transaction processing,
recovery, and concurrency control
mechanisms
– Requires only two operations in data
accessing:
• initial loading of data and access of data
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 OLTP vs. OLAP

OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response

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 Why a Separate Data Warehouse?

• High performance for both systems

– DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing,
concurrency control, recovery
– Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation
• Different functions and different data:
– missing data: Decision support requires historical data which
operational DBs do not typically maintain
– data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation,
summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources
– data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data
representations, codes and formats which have to be
reconciled
• Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP
analysis directly on relational databases
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Data Warehouse: A Multi-Tiered Architecture

Monitor
Metadata & OLAP Server
Other
sources Integrator

Analysis
Operational Extract Query
DBs Transform Data Serve Reports
Load
Refresh
Warehouse Data mining

Data Marts

Data Sources Data Storage OLAP Engine Front-End Tools

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 Three Data Warehouse Models

• Enterprise warehouse
– collects all of the information about subjects spanning
the entire organization
• Data Mart
– a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a
specific groups of users. Its scope is confined to
specific, selected groups, such as marketing data mart
• Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data mart
• Virtual warehouse
– A set of views over operational databases
– Only some of the possible summary views may be
materialized

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Extraction, Transformation, and Loading
(ETL)
• Data extraction
– get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external
sources
• Data cleaning
– detect errors in the data and rectify them when
possible
• Data transformation
– convert data from legacy or host format to
warehouse format
• Load
– sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check
integrity, and build indicies and partitions
• Refresh
– propagate the updates from the data sources to the
warehouse
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 Metadata Repository
• Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It stores:
• Description of the structure of the data warehouse
– schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data
mart locations and contents
• Operational meta-data
– data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path),
currency of data (active, archived, or purged), monitoring
information (warehouse usage statistics, error reports, audit trails)
• The algorithms used for summarization
• The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse
• Data related to system performance
– warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions
• Business data
– business terms and definitions, ownership of data, charging
policies
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Chapter 4: Data Warehousing and On-line
Analytical Processing

• Data Warehouse: Basic Concepts

• Data Warehouse Modeling: Data Cube and OLAP
• Data Warehouse Design and Usage
• Data Warehouse Implementation
• Data Generalization by Attribute-Oriented
Induction
• Summary

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 From Tables and Spreadsheets to
Data Cubes

• A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data

model which views data in the form of a data cube
• A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and
viewed in multiple dimensions
– Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand,
type), or time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
– Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold)
and keys to each of the related dimension tables
• In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a
base cuboid. The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the
highest-level of summarization, is called the apex cuboid.
The lattice of cuboids forms a data cube.
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 Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids

all
0-D (apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,location item,location location,supplier

time,item 2-D cuboids
time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,location
time,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D (base) cuboid

time, item, location, supplier

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 Conceptual Modeling of Data
Warehouses
• Modeling data warehouses: dimensions &
measures
– Star schema: A fact table in the middle
connected to a set of dimension tables
– Snowflake schema: A refinement of star
schema where some dimensional hierarchy is
normalized into a set of smaller dimension
tables, forming a shape similar to snowflake
– Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of
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stars, therefore called galaxy schema or fact
 Example of Star Schema

time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
branch_name units_sold street
branch_type city
dollars_sold state_or_province
country
avg_sales
Measures
42
 Example of Snowflake Schema

time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
branch location
location_key
location_key
branch_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key
branch_type
dollars_sold city
city_key
avg_sales city
state_or_province
Measures country
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 Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name units_sold
street
branch_type
dollars_sold city units_shipped
province_or_state
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
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shipper_type
 A Concept Hierarchy:
Dimension (location)

all all

region Europe ... North_America

country Germany ... Spain Canada ... Mexico

city Frankfurt ... Vancouver ... Toronto

office L. Chan ... M. Wind

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 Multidimensional Data

• Sales volume as a function of product, month,

and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths
on
gi

Industry Region Year

Re

Category Country Quarter

Product

Product City Month Week

Office Day

Month
46
 A Sample Data Cube

Total annual sales

Date of TVs in U.S.A.
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
t
uc

TV
od

PC U.S.A
Pr

VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico

sum

47
 Cuboids Corresponding to the
Cube

all
0-D (apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D (base) cuboid

product, date, country

48
 Typical OLAP Operations

• Roll up (drill-up): summarize data

– by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
• Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
– from higher level summary to lower level summary or
detailed data, or introducing new dimensions
• Slice and dice: project and select
• Pivot (rotate):
– reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D
planes
• Other operations
– drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
– drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to
its back-end relational tables (using SQL)

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Fig. 3.10 Typical OLAP
Operations

50
 Data Warehouse Usage
• Three kinds of data warehouse applications
– Information processing
• supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and
reporting using crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
– Analytical processing
• multidimensional analysis of data warehouse data
• supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling,
pivoting
– Data mining
• knowledge discovery from hidden patterns
• supports associations, constructing analytical models,
performing classification and prediction, and
presenting the mining results using visualization tools51
 From On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP)
to On Line Analytical Mining (OLAM)

• Why online analytical mining?

– High quality of data in data warehouses
• DW contains integrated, consistent, cleaned data
– Available information processing structure
surrounding data warehouses
• ODBC, OLEDB, Web accessing, service facilities,
reporting and OLAP tools
– OLAP-based exploratory data analysis
• Mining with drilling, dicing, pivoting, etc.
– On-line selection of data mining functions
• Integration and swapping of multiple mining
functions, algorithms, and tasks

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 OLAP Server Architectures

• Relational OLAP (ROLAP)

– Use relational or extended-relational DBMS to store and
manage warehouse data and OLAP middle ware
– Include optimization of DBMS backend, implementation of
aggregation navigation logic, and additional tools and
services
– Greater scalability
• Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)
– Sparse array-based multidimensional storage engine
– Fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data
• Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) (e.g., Microsoft SQLServer)
– Flexibility, e.g., low level: relational, high-level: array
• Specialized SQL servers (e.g., Redbricks)
– Specialized support for SQL queries over star/snowflake 53
Thank You