MICROPROCESSOR AND

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
LECTURE-1-INTRDUCTION

MUHAMMAD HAFEEZ
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
GC UNIVERSITY LAHORE
TODAY’S AGENDA
 Introduction to Course

 Background-Prerequisites

 Number System
 Memory
MY INTRODUCTION

Office: Room-103
Course Blog: csience1234.wordpress.com
Email: hafeez192@gmail.com
COURSE INTRODUCTION

 Course Title: Microprocessor and Assembly

Language
 Course Code: CS-2207
 Recommended Books:
 8086 IBM-PC Assembly Language by M.A.Mazidi
 Intel Microprocessors Architecture, Programming
and Interfacing by Bary B. Bray
 Assembly Language Programming and
Organization of the IBM PC By Ytha Y. Yu,
Charles Marut
COURSE INTRODUCTION

 Reference Material:

 Google It
 Taste It
COURSE DESCRIPTION
 This is a semester long course introducing
fundamentals of a computer organization.
Primarily the course focus on Assembly
Language for the Intel x86 series of chips
which is the heart of the IBM PC.
 Assembly Language is a link between
microprocessor and High Level Language
 Write, Understand and Debug a Program
written in Assembly Language
 Control I/O Devices
COURSE PREREQUISITES
 Digital Logic Design
 Minimum familiarity with IBM PC and MS-
DOS
PROCESSOR
UNDERSTANDING
 Bottom-Up View

 Logic Gates (Transistors)

 Flip-Flops, Registers, Multiplexers, Decoders,
Adders
 Memory, Processor, I/O Controllers
 Build Complete Computer System
PROCESSOR
UNDERSTANDING
 Top-Down View

 A Programmer’s View
 Study tasks that processor executes to execute a
HLL program
 Learn the Set of very basic steps processor
performs – Instruction Set
 Can be Learned at Machine Level – difficult to
understand
 Assembly Language Level – Symbolic equivalent to
machine level instructions
PROCESSOR
UNDERSTANDING
 Top-Down View

 Example, for the Intel Processor:

 MOV AL, 5 ;Assembly language

 10110000 00000101 ;Machine language
MOTIVATION
 Link between High Level Language and
Assembly
 Assembler is developed for particular processor
 Reasons to Learns Assembly:
 In-depth understanding of assembly is required
to understand device drivers
 Compiler Development and Code Optimization
 Helpful in working with Operating System and
embedded systems
 A conceptual bridge between Abstraction of real
world in (compiler) and microprocessor
COURSE WORK AND
GRADING
 Quiz-05%
 Assignment-05%
 Term Project-10%
 Mid Term-20%
 Final Term-60%
 This is tentative distribution and liable to change
under certain circumstances.
ATTENDANCE &
ASSIGNMENT SUBMISSION
 80% attendance mandatory to qualify for
final examination
 Assignments should be submitted on due
date and time, no further extension shall be
given. Assignments should be
submitted in hard-copy on A4 paper
with proper binding and titled in the
format
 StudentFirstName-RollNo-CourseCode-Section-
AssignmentNo
 e.g. kaleem-001BSCS14-CS2207-A-01
NUMBER SYSTEM
 Data Represented in Computer is in the
form of digital signals (on-off)
 Best represented by Binary Number System
(1-0)
 One binary digit is not enough to represent
real world information
 Need at least 08 bits called a ‘Byte’; that is
smallest addressable unit in modern
computers
 For x86 following units are used
 01 Byte = 08 Bits
 01 Word = 02 Bytes
 01 Double Word = 02 Words
NUMBER SYSTEM
 The contents of 1 bytes stored in computer
memory needs ‘Interpretation’
 For Example, the memory content 0100
0001, can be represented as Number 65 or
Letter ‘A’
 It is upto the programmer to provide
interpretation
NUMBER SYSTEM
 A written number is only meaningful when
we define its Base
 Hexadecimal 25 is written as 25h
 Binary 1010 is written as 1010b
 Decimal 1010 is written as 1010 or 1010d

 Significance of Bases to demonstrate

quantity
 Larger base represent large quantities in fewer
digits
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
 Digits are 1 and 0
 1 = true
 0 = false
 MSB – Most Significant Bit
 LSB – Least Significant Bit

 Bit Numbering: MSB LSB

1011001010011100
15 0
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
 Each digit (bit) is either 1 or 0
 Each bit represents a power of 2:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

 Every binary number is a sum of powers of 2

CONVERTING BINARY TO
DECIMAL
 Weighted positional notation shows how to calculate
the decimal value of each binary bit:
 Decimal Number = (Dn-1  2n-1) + (Dn-2  2n-2) + ... + (D1  21) + (D0  20)
 D = Binary Digit

 (1010)2 =1x23+0x22+1x21+0x20 =8+0+2+0= (10)10

CONVERTING UNSIGNED
DECIMAL TO BINARY
 Repeatedly divide the decimal integer by 2. Each
remainder is a binary digit in the translated value:
BINARY ARITHMETIC

 Binary Addition
 Binary Subtraction
 Binary Multiplication
 Binary Division
UNSIGNED INTEGER
NUMBER STORAGE SIZE IN
MEMORY
 Standard Sizes

 What is the Largest Number stored in 20 Bits

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER
SYSTEM
 Binary, Decimal and Hexadecimal Numbers
HEXADECIMAL NUMBER
SYSTEM
 Binary, Decimal and Hexadecimal Numbers
CONVERTING
HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
 Each Hexadecimal digit is equivalent to 4 Binary
Digits

 Prove the same with repeated division method by 2

CONVERTING
HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL
 Multiply each digit by its corresponding power of 16:
Decimal = (Dn-1  16n-1)+…+(D3  163) + (D2  162) + (D1  161) + (D0  160)

 Hex 1234 equals (1  163) + (2  162) + (3  161) +

(4  160)= decimal 4,660.

 Hex 3BA4 equals (3  163) + (11 * 162) + (10  161)

+ (4  160)= decimal 15,268.

 Another way
CONVERTING
HEXADECIMAL VALUES
UPTO 8 DIGITS
CONVERTING DECIMAL TO
HEXADECIMAL

 decimal 422 = 1A6 hexadecimal

HEXADECIMAL ADDITION
 Starting from LSB if sum of each two digits is
greater than or equal to 16, divide it with 16, the
quotient become carry digit and remainder become
sum digit
 Carry will be 1
36 28 28 6A
42 45 58 4B
78 6D 80 B5

21 / 16 = 1, rem 5

 Important skill to do arithmetic in Hexadecimal for

Assembly Language
HEXADECIMAL ADDITION
HEXADECIMAL
SUBTRACTION
 When a Borrow is required from the digit on left
hand side, add sixteen (16) to the digit on right
hand side
 Borrow will be 16 16 + 5 = 21

-1
C6 75
A2 47
24 2E

 The address of var1 is 00400020. The address of

the next variable after var1 is 0040006A. How many
bytes are used by var1?
TWO REPRESENTATIONS
FOR INTEGERS

 The unsigned representation: in that case all the

bits are used to represent a magnitude
 Can be positive number or Zero
 Signed Representation

 For What purpose signed number could be used?

 Can you recognize a number for even or odd by

looking at bit pattern?
SIGNED REPRESENTATIONS
FOR INTEGERS
 The Singed Representation forms:
 Sign Magnitude Form
 Uses most significant bit of the word to represent the sign.
 0 - Positive
 1 - Negative.
 Rest of the number is encoded in magnitude part
 37 = 00000000 00100101
 -37 = 10000000 00100101
 6712 = 00011010 00111000
 -6712 = 10011010 00111000
 Can represent numbers from -32,767 to 32,767.
 -215+1 .. 215-1
 But, two representations for zero:
 0 = 00000000 00000000
 -0 = 10000000 00000000
 Arithmetic can be cumbersome.
SIGNED REPRESENTATIONS
FOR INTEGERS
 Sign Magnitude Form
 Uses most significant bit of the word to represent the sign.
 0 - Positive
 1 - Negative.
 Rest of the number is encoded in magnitude part
 37 = 00000000 00100101
 -37 = 10000000 00100101
 6712 = 00011010 00111000
 -6712 = 10011010 00111000
 Can represent numbers from -32,767 to 32,767.
 -215+1 .. 215-1
 But, two representations for zero:
 0 = 00000000 00000000
 -0 = 10000000 00000000
 Arithmetic can be cumbersome.
SIGNED REPRESENTATIONS
FOR INTEGERS
 1’s Compliment Form
 Negative number is stored as bit-wise complement of
corresponding positive number.
 Leftmost bit of positive number is 0. That of negative number
is 1.
 196 = 00000000 11000100
 -196 = 11111111 00111011
 Can represent numbers from -32,767 to 32,767.
 -215+1 .. 215-1
 Arithmetic is easier than sign-magnitude.
 But, still have two representations for zero:
 0 = 00000000 00000000
 -0 = 11111111 11111111

 Add 5 and -5 using 1’s Complement and see the

result?
SIGNED REPRESENTATIONS
FOR INTEGERS
 2’s Compliment Form
 Modern Method
 Positive number represented in same way as other two
methods
 Negative number obtained by taking 1's Complement of
positive number and adding 1.
 6713 = 00011000 00011101
 1's Comp = 11100111 11100010
 2's Comp = 11100111 11100011
 Word integer can represent numbers from -32,768 to 32,767.
 -215 .. 215-1
 Byte integer can represent numbers from -128 to 127.
 -27 .. 27-1
 One version of zero:
 00000000 00000000
 Find 2’s complement of 2’s complement of 6
SIGNED REPRESENTATIONS
FOR INTEGERS
 Represent -97d in 2’s Complement Form using 8 bits
and 16 bits?

 Sol: Represent 97 in Hex

 Convert hex representation into binary
 Take 2’s complement of binary
 Convert into Hex … this how it is represented

 5ABAH – 2A91H
 Use 2’s complement to solve it
RANGE OF SIGNED
INTEGERS
 MSB is reserved for Sign; this factor limits the range

 For Signed Representation; what largest value can

be stored in 20 bits
SIGNED AND UNSIGNED IN
COMPUTER MEMORY TO
DECIMAL

 To use a number in computer memory; we need to

provide it either signed or unsigned interpretation
 How can we do that?
 Unsigned: Just convert binary to decimal, better to
convert to hex and then to decimal
 Signed: If msb=0, convert like unsigned numbers,
if msb=1, call the N number as –N, take 2’s
complement and then convert to decimal, place –
sign in front
 1111 1111 can be interpreted as 255 (unsigned) Or
-1 (minus one) as signed

 Its upto the programmer to provide memory

contents suitable interpretation for program
SIGNED AND UNSIGNED IN
COMPUTER MEMORY TO
DECIMAL
SIGNED AND UNSIGNED IN
COMPUTER MEMORY TO
DECIMAL
SIGNED AND UNSIGNED IN
COMPUTER MEMORY TO
DECIMAL

 Any Observation in previous two slides?

 Computer memory contents are FE0CH, give it

signed and unsigned representation?
SIGNED AND UNSIGNED IN
COMPUTER MEMORY TO
DECIMAL

 Another Observation:

 From 0000H-7FFFH  Signed Number = Unsigned Numbers

 From 8000H-FFFFHSigned Number = Unsigned Number-65536

 Can you Observe the same for Byte?

 Give FE0CH a singed and unsigned representation

through this method?
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM
VALUES FOR SIGNED
NUMBERS
 MSB used to represent sign, fever bits left for
magnitude representation

 For Example, a signed byte have

 Smallest Positive 0000 0000 (0 in decimal)

 Largest Positive 0111 1111 (127 in decimal)

 Smallest Negative 1000 0000 (-128)

 Largest Negative 1111 1111 (-1)

 First low byte is stored memory then high byte [Little

Endian]
REPRESENTATION
THROUGH MEMORY
CONTENTS
 Each Character is represented with 7 bit Code called
ASCII Character
 ASCII Code from 00H to 07FH
 Codes from 20H to 7EH are printable, rest of them are control
code
 An extended character set is obtained by setting the
most significant bit (MSB) to 1 (codes 80h to FFh)
so that each character is stored in 1 byte
ASCII CHARACTER SET

 CR = Carriage Return
 LF = Line Feed (Cursor Moved one line below)
 SPC = Blank Space
TEXT FILES USING ASCII
CHARACTER SET
 Text Files contain printable and non-printable ASCII
Characters
 Different OS represent non-printable characters
(control characters) i.e. moving to cursor to start of
line through different ways,
 Windows: <CR>+<LF>
 UNIX: <LF>
 MAC: <CR>
 Origin of problem when we move text files from one
OS to other
CHARACTER STORAGE

 ASCII (0-127)
 Extended ASCII (0-255)
 Uni-Code (0-65,535)
QUESTIONS

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