LECTURE-8: Chapter 4:

Morphology and Phytogeography

Morphology: a detailed account of various, morphological characters root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, flower,
placentation and fruit types.

“Morphology is a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms
and their specific structural features.”
Morphological characters of Root:
 “The cylindrical plant organ which is devoid of chlorophyll, bearing no buds or leaves and
tending to grow towards the gravity is called root”
 Roots are not only one of the important structures present in the plants but they also
perform various critical functions.
 They play a major role in the life processes.
 Interestingly, not all plants have roots, some plants like mosses and liverworts lack the root
system.
 Root show negative phototropic and positive geotropic movement and positively hydrotropic.
 Kinds of Roots:

 On root apex, there is a protective covering, root cap.

 Fine and delicate root hairs are also present behind root cap absorbing water and mineral
from soil and increase surface area for aborption.
 In roots, there are meristematic zone, zone of elongation and zone of maturation.
 Kinds of Roots:
 Roots may be classified into two main groups.
 A) Tap Root
 B) Adventious Roots
 A) Tap Root:
 “In most of the dicot plants, the direct elongation of radicle (hypocotyl) of seed embryo leads
to the formation of root called as primary root. If the primary root persist and become thicker
and swollen, it is called as tap root”
 Primary root bears laterals roots of several orders that are referred as secondary roots,
tertiary roots, etc. e.g. mustard plant.
 The deep feeder plants have a long network of tap root system while surface feeder plants
have short tap roots
 Conti…
 Forms of Tap Root:
 There are following forms of tap root;
a) Fibrous tap root b) Tuberous tap root.
• a) Fibrous tap Root:
• “The long and slender tap root with slender branches is called fibrous tap root.”
• In monocot plants, the primary root is short lived and is replaced by a large number of roots.
• These roots originate from the base of the stem and constitute the fibrous root system. e.g.
wheat.
• It is found in many herbs like bean, pea etc.
• In leguminous plants, root nodules are formed. In these nodules Nitrogen fixing bacteria live.
• b) Tuberous Tap Root:
• “The thick or swollen tap roots which reserve food are called tuberous tap roots.”
• They are found in biennial plants (live in two seasons) like carrot, turnip, radish, etc.
• In perennial plants the food material stored up in the tuberous tap roots serves to sustain
growth in the early part of each growing season.
• Tuberous tap roots may further can be divided into conical, fusiform and napiform.
• i) Conical:
• These root are swollen towards upper end but taper towards the lower end. e.g. carrot, radish, etc.
• ii) Fusiform:
• These tap roots are spindle shape i.e. swollen in the middle. e.g. English carrot.
• iii) Napiform:
• These tap roots are very much swollen above but abruptly tapers towards the lower end. E.g.
turnip, beet, etc.
• B) Adventitious Roots:
• “The roots which are formed from any part of plant (stem, leaves) other than radicle are called
adventious roots.”
• Forms of Adventitious Roots: The various forms of adventitious roots are as follows.
• 1. Subterranean or under ground adventitious roots:
• These roots arise from some part of stem which is in contact with the soil. These may be fibrous or
tuberous
• a) Fibrous adventitious roots:
• These are long and slender roots. These commonly develop on creeping and underground stem like
grasses.
• b) Tuberous adventitious roots:
• These are swollen and fleshy roots. These roots contain stored food material. e.g. sweet potato,
Asparagus, etc.
• 2. Partly subterranean adventitious roots:
• These roots are partly above and partly below the ground. These roots may be stilt roots,
prop root and aerating roots.
• a) Stilt Roots:
• These adventitious roots arise from the lower portion of stem and grow into soil.
• Such types of roots are found in corn, sugar cane, bamboo ,etc.
• b) Prop roots:
• In this case, roots hangs down in the air from the aerial branches of stem.
• These roots absorb moisture of air. e.g. banyan (Ficus bengalensis), rubber tree (Ficus
elastica).
• c) Aerating roots or pneumatophores:
• These roots grow vertically upward and projects above the soil surface.
• These roots have opening for the entry of air. Such roots are called pneumatophores.
• e.g. Mangroves ( shrubs or small trees, growing in marshy places. )
• 3. Aerial Roots:
These roots are entirely exposed to the air. These roots perform special functions. Aerial
roots are of two types
a) Clinging or Climbing aerial roots:
• In ivy, betel, long pepper and certain other plants, the stem develops numerous short,
adventitious roots which are known as climbing roots.
• These are sensitive to touch and when they touch a suitable support, such as wall or a
tree trunk, they become firmly attached to it.
• They fasten the plants to support and enable it to climb to a considerable height.
b) Absorbing Epiphytic Roots:
• In tropical rain forests, where the air is very moist, there are many kinds of epiphytes.
• Epiphytes are small plants which perch (settle upon) upon the branches of trees, and have
no connection with the soil.
• They send out long adventitious roots which hang freely in the air and absorbs moisture
from it.
• They retain moisture too.
• e.g. Orchids.
• 4. Parasiting Roots (Houstoria):
• These roots are develop in parasitic plants like Cuscuta.
• Stem develops these roots for absorption of food from the host.
• These roots penetrates into the host tissues.
• E.g. Cuscuta, Hydnora spp.
• 5. Aquatic Roots:
• These roots are developed in aquatic plants.
• Thes roots arise from stem and spread in water.
• These roots are usually without root hairs.
• e.g. Hydrilla.
 Functions of Roots
• Functions of Roots:
• The functions of root are as follows:
• Anchoring of the plant to the soil.
• Absorption of water and nutrients from the soil.
• Conduction of absorbed water and nutrients to stem.
• Storage of food.
• Vegetative reproduction and competition with other plants.
• Soil binding.
 Important Questions

• Q.1: What is
THANKS
 Lecture 9: Morphology of Stem

• Stem: “An aerial portion of plants which develops from plumule/epicotyle of the embryo
(in the seed)”
• It is positively phototropic and negatively geotropic
• Stem along with its leaves and branches forms the shoot system
• Stem has node and internode.
• The part of stem from which leaves arise is called node.
• The part of stem between two successive nodes is called internode.
• Stem usually bears multicellular hairs while root hairs are unicellular
• Its growing apex is covered by a number of young leaves which form buds, protect young
stem.
• Types of plants on the basis of length of life cycle:
• Flowering plants are classified into annuals, biennial and perennial on the basis of length of
life.
• i) Annuals: They live only for a single growing season after which they die.
• They produce seeds which on germination, develop into new plants the next year.
• e.g. most herbaceous plants like wheat, tomato, rice, poppy, etc.
• ii) Biennials:
• They live for two growing seasons.
• During the first season they develop leaves on short stems and store up food in their tap
roots.
• The leaves die away at the end of this season.
• During the following season the stored food is utilized for the production of flowers and
fruits, after which the plants die.
• e.g. radish, turnip, carrot, etc.
• iii) Perennials:
• They live for several years and usually produce seed annually.
• All woody plants and some herbs are perennials.
• In herbaceous perennial, such as ginger, asparagus, dahlia, etc., aerial parts of plants die in
winter while underground parts continue to live and produce new aerial shoots in the
following spring.
• 2. Types of plants on the basis of Habit (Nature)
• The flowering plants may be classified into herbs, shrubs and trees on the basis their size,
habit of growth and the soft or woody texture of stems.
• i) Herbs:
• An annual or biennial green small sized plant is called herb.
• Herbs have soft stem.
• In some herbs the shoots are more or less woody at the base, e.g. wall flower.
• e.g. mustard, radish, turnip, etc.
• ii) Shrubs:
• These are perennial woody plants which are larger than herbs but such smaller than trees.
• Their stems usually branch at or near the ground and the branches increase in length and
girth.
• There is no apparent main stem or trunk e.g. rose, jasmine, etc.
• iii) Trees:
• These are tall woody perennial plants with a distinct upright stem of 6 feet or more.
• Numerous branches are given off from the main stem.
• e.g. mango, banyan, peepal, etc.
 Types of Stems
• Types of Stems: The stems may be aerial or underground
• A) Aerial Stems:
• The aerial stems grow above the ground and are exposed to the air.
• They may be reduced, erect or weak.
• i) Reduced Aerial Stems:
• Stem is very reduced and present in the form of green structure above the thick roots.
• These stems are so small that the leaves appear to be arisen from root directly.
• e.g. radish, turnips, etc.
• ii) Erect Aerial Stems:
• Stems are thick and strong.
• It grows upward/erect, exposing their leaves well to the air and sunlight.
• Such stems are present in trees.
• iii) Weak Aerial Stems:
• They are much weak and unable to grow erect.
• They become climber or spread on ground
• They may be a) Climbers b) trailers
• a) Climbers:
• These plants have weak and slender stem which can not grow erect.
• They climb up the support either by coiling round it or by developing special organs by means
of which they become attached to it.
• Climbers are very characteristic of tropical forests where struggle for light and air is keen
means of support are readily available.
• These plants may be of following types on the basis of their mode of climbing .
• i) Twiners:
• The plants whose stem twin or coil around some support are called twiners.
• They don't have any special organ for climbing.
• e.g. Ipomoea, bean, Cuscuta, Clitoria, Tinosporia, etc.
• ii) Tendril climbers:
• These plants develop long slender structure known as tendrils for climb up the support.
• The young tendrils are sensitive to contact. When the apical portion of a tendril touches a
support, it twins round it.
• The whole tendrils become coiled into a spiral which, like a wire-spring draws the plant close
to the support.
• The tendrils may be modification of stems, leaves or stipules.
• e.g. Pea, Vine(grape), Smilax, Viginia creeper, Cucurbita ( gourd,melons,cucumber), etc.
• iii) Root climbers:
• These climbers attach themselves to the support by means of small adventitious roots which
arise from the side of stem and attach with the support.
• Such roots are sensitive to contact. They penetrate into the cracks or crevices of the
supporting stem.
• e.g. Ivy, Pepper, Vanilla, Pothos (money plant),etc.
• b) Trailers:
• In these plants the stems spread out or trail on the ground. Their stem is called prostrate
stem.
• There are following special modification of trailer.
• i) Creeper:
• The main stem of creeper spread out on the ground and develop adventitious roots at the
nodes.
• The nodes which survive give rise to new plants.
• e.g. Ground ivy (Nepeta), creeping jenny, etc.
• (ii) Runner:
• It grows prostrate in all directions above the soil level.
• Nodes bear scale leaves.
• It has a creeping stem with long internodes. On the lower sides, nodes bear adventitious
roots.
• Runner develops from the axils of lower leaves of aerial stem which sends slender horizontal
branches in the form of runners.
• When older parts of plant die, the branches separate from parent plant and form
independent plants.
• e.g. Doob grass (Cynodon dactylon), Brahmi booti, straw berry, etc.
• (iii) Stolon:
• It is a slender lateral branch which appears from the lower part of main axis.
• This lateral branch grows aerially for some distance and becomes arched and finally touches
the ground to give rise to new shoot with the help of its terminal bud.
• It also bears roots to get fixed with the soil.
• e.g. Jasmine, black berry, eel grass, etc.
• (iv) Offset:
• Offset is more shorter and thicker.
• It is usually found in aquatic plants like water hyacinth and Pistia.
• It bears a cluster of leaves near the water or ground level and gives adventitious roots inside
water or ground from all nodes.
• e.g. Pistia, Agave, Furcarea, etc.
• (v) Sucker:
• Sucker is an underground runner or shoots.
• It arises from axillary bud develop on the underground stem.
• It grows upward and give rise to aerial branches.
• It gives off adventitious roots into the soil. Thus a new plant is formed.
• e.g. Mentha (mint), rose, plum, willow, etc.
 Lecture 10: Underground Stems

• B) Underground Stems:
• These stems grow underground.
• They are often thick and swollen with a large amount of stored food.
• Underground stems are formed in perennial herbs.
• During the next season, the stored food material is utilized for the development of new aerial
shoots from the resting buds on it.
• The under ground resemble roots but can be readily distinguished from roots by the presence of
• a) Node and internode
• b) Scale leaves with buds
• c) By the absence of root cap at the growing apex
• d) Moreover, they arise from buds in the axils of leaves.
• Types of Underground stems:
• There are four principal types of underground stems, namely
• 1. Rhizome
• 2.Corm
• 3. Bulb
• 4. Stem tubers
 Types of Underground Stems

• 1. Rhizome:
• The elongated, horizontal, thick and fleshy underground stem is called rhizome.
• It has large amount of stored food
• It has distinct nodes and internodes
• Nodes give off adventitious roots.
• It gives of aerial branches
• Examples: Ginger(Zingiber officinale), Turmeric(Haldi), Water grass (Typha), etc.
• Types of Rhizomes:
• a) Straggling Rhizome:
• The elongated, less branched rhizome which grow horizontally is called straggling rhizome.
• It is found in water grasses (Typha)
• b) Sobole Rhizome:
• In this case the rhizome is long, slender and has long internodes.
• Rhizomes are found in many grasses and sedges like couch grass, sand sedge.
• c) Monopodial Rhizome/Racemose:
• They are arranged like racemose.
• They have single axis which give rise to lateral branches.
• It is found in wood sorrel (Oxalis).
• d) Sympodial Rhizome:
• In this case the rhizomes are arranged in cymose pattern.
• Each branch give rise to new axis.
• e.g. Ginger, Solomon’s seal,
• 2.Corm:
• Corm is short, thick and un-branched underground stem with stored food material.
• It grows vertically and covered by thin sheathing leaf bases of dead leaves called scales.
• The corm bears buds at their nodes. These buds are responsible for giving off adventitious
roots.
• Corm serves the functions of food storage, vegetative propagation and perennation.
• Corm is more or less rounded in shape or often somewhat flattened from top to bottom.
• e.g. Colocasia esculenta (Kachalu), Gladiolus, Saffon (Crocus sativus), etc
• 3. Bulb:
• “Bulb is a short underground stem with fleshy leaf base called scales.”
• Stem is very much reduced and becomes disc like.
• The discoid stem in convex or conical in shape and bears highly compressed internodes.
• These nodes bear fleshy scales.
• On the upper side, disc bears terminal bud surrounded by number of leaves.
• The axillary buds are present between the axis of leaves.
• The adventitious roots are borne on the lower side of the disc.
• e .g. Onion.
• Types of bulb:
• a) Tunicated bulb:
• “The bulb in which leaves surround each other is called tunicated bulb.”
• In these bulb, the bases of the foliage leaves store food and become fleshy.
• New leaves are formed on the older leaves. These leaves completely enclose one another.
• Lower portion of leaves contain large amount of stored food. But the upper portion of leaves
have no stored food and they dry up.
• e.g. Onion( Allium cepa), Garlic , tulip, etc.
• b) Scaly or imbricate bulbs:
• “The bulb in which leaves overlaps each other at their margins is called scaly bulbs.”
• In it the disc bears foliage leaves and scale leaves.
• The foliage leaves die away at the end of season and the food material is stored up in the
scale leaves which become thick and fleshy.
• e.g. Lily (Lillium), Fritillaria, etc.
• 4. Stem Tuber:
• “The swollen underground tips of branches of verticle axis which store food and use for
vegetative propagation is called stem tuber.”
• The underground stem becomes enlarged at the growing tips by the accumulation of stored
food, commonly starch, tubers are produced.
• The eyes of potato are nodes at each of which 1-3 buds are produced in the axils of small
scaly like leaves.
• e.g. Potato (Solarium tuberosum)
 Special Types of Stems
• Special Types of Stems:
• Some stems are highly modified. They even don't look like stems. They perform different
functions. They may be stem tendrils, thorns, phyloclade, cladode, thalamus.
• (i) Stem tendrils:
• It is a leafless, spirally coiled branch formed in some climbers and helps them in climbing
neighbouring objects.
• They may be modification of axillary bud.
• They are sensitive to contact
• e.g. Virginia creeper (Amphelopsis), Passiflora, grapes, etc.
• (ii) Stem spines or thorns:
• Stem thorn is a hard, straight and pointed structure.
• It is a defensive organ.
• It also helps in climbing.
• It originates from axillary or terminal bud.
• e.g. Duranta.
• (iii) Pylloclade:
• It is a green, flattended or cylindrical stem which takes the form and function of leaf.
• It contains chlorophyll and is responsible for carrying on photosynthesis.
• It bears succession of nodes and intemodes at long or short intervals.
• Phylloclades are found in xerophytic plants where the leaves either grow feebly or fall off early or
modified into spines.
• e.g. Opuntia, Ruscus, Euphorbia, Cacti,
• (iv) Cladode:
• Phylloclade with one or two internodes is called cladode e.g. Asparagus.
• In Asparagus cladodes are needle-like, slightly flattened green structures which appear in cluster in
the axil of a scaly leaf.
• Main stem bears leaf spines at its nodes.
• A scale leaf is found just above the spine.
• Every branch on main stem bears only scale leaves. In the axil of scale leaves cluster of cladodes
appear
• Advantages of Phyloclade and Cladode:
• They serve to store up a large amount of water.
• They also carry on the functions of foliage leaves.
• They help the plants to conserve water supply.
• They reduce evaporation of water from their surface.
• (v) Bulbil:
• Bulbil is the modification of vegetative or floral bud.
• It is swollen due to storage of food.
• It can function as an organ of vegetative propagation.
• e.g. Yam (Dioscorea),
• Functions of Stem:
• It supports and holds leaves, flowers, and fruits.
• The stem allows the leaves to arrange in a way that they are able to receive direct sunlight in
order to efficiently perform photosynthesis.
• The arrangement and position of leaves also allow for gas exchange.
• The xylem and phloem present in the vascular bundles of stems conduct water and minerals
across the plant.
• Stems bear flowers and fruits in a position that facilitates the processes of pollination,
fertilization, and dispersion of seeds.
• Some stems undergo modification to store food and water. Example: succulents.
• Few green stems contain chloroplasts and are capable of carrying out photosynthesis as well.
• Some stems are modified to carry out vegetative propagation which is a form of asexual
reproduction seen in plants.
• They are involved in perennation (survival from one growing season to the next).
 Economic importance of Stem

• Economic importance of Stem:

• There are thousands of species whose stems have economic uses.
• 1. Stems provide a few major staple crops such as potato and taro. 
• 2. Sugar cane stems are a major source of sugar. Maple sugar is got from trunks of maple
 trees. 
• 3. Vegetables from stems are asparagus, bamboo shoots, cactus pads, kohlrabi, and 
water chestnut.
• 4. The spice, cinnamon is bark from a tree trunk.
• 5. Cellulose from tree trunks is a food additive in bread, grated Parmesan cheese, and other
processed foods. 
• 6. Gum arabic is an important food additive obtained from the trunks of Acacia senegal trees.
• 7. Chicle, the main ingredient in chewing gum, is obtained from trunks of the chicle tree.
• 8. Medicines obtained from stems include Quinine from the bark of Cinchona trees,
• 9. Camphor distilled from wood of a tree in the same genus that provides cinnamon, and the
muscle relaxant curare from the bark of tropical vines.
• 10. Wood is a used in thousands of ways, e.g. buildings, furniture, boats, airplanes, wagons, 
car parts, musical instruments, sports equipment, railroad ties, utilitypoles, fenceposts,
pilings, toothpicks, matches, plywood, coffins, shingles, barrel staves, toys, tool handles, 
pictureframes, veneer, charcoal and firewood.
• 11. Wood pulp is widely used to make paper, cardboard, cellulose sponges, cellophane and

 
some important plastics and textiles, such as cellulose acetate and rayon.
• 12. Bamboo stems also have hundreds of uses, including paper, buildings, furniture, boats,
musical instruments, fishing poles, water pipes, plant stakes, and scaffolding.
• 13. Trunks of palm trees and tree ferns are often used for building. Reed stems are also
important building materials in some areas.
• 14. Tannins used for tanning leather are obtained from the wood of certain trees, such as
quebracho. 
• 15. Cork is obtained from the bark of the cork oak. 
• 16. Rubber is obtained from the trunks of Hevea brasiliensis. 
• 17. Rattan, used for furniture and baskets, is made from the stems of tropical vining palms.
• 18. Bast fibers for textiles and rope are obtained from stems include flax, hemp, jute and 
ramie.
• 19. The earliest paper was obtained from the stems of papyrus by the ancient Egyptians.
• 20. Amber is fossilized sap from tree trunks; it is used for jewelry and may contain ancient
animals.
• 21. Resins from conifer wood are used to produce turpentine and rosin. Tree bark is often
used as mulch and in growing media for container plants.
• 22. Some ornamental plants are grown mainly for their attractive stems, e.g.:
• White bark of paper birch
• Twisted branches of corkscrew willow and Harry Lauder's walking stick (Corylus
avellana 'Contorta').
• Red, peeling bark of paperbark maple.
 Important Questions

• Q.1: What is
THANKS