KR10802

Fundamentals of
Electrical
Engineering

Chapter 6 : RLC
 PREVIOUS CHAPTER
Series Parallel
1 1 1 1
   ...... 
RT R1 R2 Rn

1
Resistance R T  R 1  R 2      R n RT 
1  1 1
 .....  Rn
R1 R2
RT  R1 R2 R1 R 2
RT 
R1  R2

Current I T  I1  I 2  I n IT  I1  I 2      I n

Voltage V T  V1  V 2      V n V T  V1  V 2 
Vn
 PREVIOUS CHAPTER
Series Parallel

KVL KCL
Law V T  V 1  V 2  V 3    V n IT  I1  I 2 ...  In

V T V 1  V 2  V 3      V n  0 IT  I1  I2 ...  I n  0

VDR CDR
Rule R  R 
Vx   x V Ix   T
 T  
T  Rx 
R  I T
R  T
 2
I 
1 I
R1  R2 
RT  R1 R2

R1 
I2   IT
 1
R  R2 

 PREVIOUS CHAPTER

Relation Capacitor Inductor

1 1 1 1
Series    ......  Leq L1 L2 ...  LN
Ceq C1 C2 CN

1 1 1 1
 C2
Parallel .....  CN Ceq C1    ... 
Leq L1 L2 LN
 PREVIOUS CHAPTER
Relation Capacitor Inductor
1 t
Voltage
v  i dt  v(t ) o v(t)  L
di(t)
C to
dt
1
 v( ) d  i(t )
t
dv i(t) 
Current iC L t0
dt 0
1
 dv(t)  vdt  i(t )
t

 L
P(t)  V (t)C PV
Power t0
 0
 
dt

1
Energy W  CV 2 1 2
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating current (AC), is an electric current in which
flow
the of electric charge periodically reverses direction,
whereas in direct current (DC), the flow of electric charge
only in one direction. is
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Sine Wave
 The sinusoidal waveform or sine wave or sinusoid is the
fundamental type of alternating current (ac) and alternating
voltage.
 The electrical service provided by the power company is in
the form of sinusoidal voltage and current.

Symbol for a sinusoidal

voltage source.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Sine Wave
 A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the
sine or cosine function.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Polarity of a Sine Wave
 A graph showing the general shape
of a sine wave, which can be either
an alternating current or an
alternating voltage.
 Starting at zero, the voltage (or
current) increases to a positive
maximum (peak), returns to zero,
and then increases to a negative
maximum (peak) before returning
again to zero, thus completing one
full cycle.
 A sine wave changes polarity at
zero value; that is, it alternates
its
between positive
and values. negative
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Polarity of a Sine Wave
 When a sinusoidal voltage source is applied to a resistive
circuit,
an alternating sinusoidal current results.
 When the voltage changes polarity, the current
correspondingly changes direction as indicated.
 The combined positive and negative alternations make up
one
cycle of a sine wave.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Period of a Sine Wave
Period, (𝑇) = the time required for a sine wave to complete
one full cycle
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Period of a Sine Wave
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Period of a Sine Wave
Method 1:
The period can be measured from one zero crossing to the
corresponding zero crossing in the next cycle (the slope must
be the same at the corresponding zero crossings).

Method 2:
The period can be measured from the positive peak in one
cycle to the positive peak in the next cycle.

Method 3:
The period can be measured from the negative peak in one
cycle to the negative peak in the next cycle.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Example 1:
What is the period of the sine wave in figure below?

ANS: T = 4 sec
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Frequency of a Sine Wave
Frequency, (𝑓) = the number of cycles that a sine wave
completes in one second
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Frequency of a Sine Wave
 One Hertz (Hz) is equivalent to one cycle per second; 60 Hz is 60
cycles per second.
 For example: The sine wave in part (a) completes 2 full cycles in
1 second. The one in part (b) completes 4 cycles in 1 second.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Relationship of Frequency & Period
 There is a reciprocal relationship between 𝑓 and 𝑇.
 The formulas for the relationship between frequency
(𝑓 ) and period (𝑇) are as follows:

1 1
f  T 
T f
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Example 2:
Determine the frequency and the period of both waveforms.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Solution:

3 cycles in 1 sec, therefore: 5 cycles in 1 sec, therefore:

f  3Hz f  5H z
1 1 1 1
T    T   
333ms 200ms
f 3 f 5
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Exercise 1:
a) The period of a certain sine wave is 10 ms. What is the
frequency?
b) The frequency of a sine wave is 60 Hz. What is
the period?

ANS: a) 100 Hz b) 16.7 ms

 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Sinusoidal Voltage & Current Values
5 ways to express the value of a sine wave in terms of its
voltage or its current magnitude are:

1) instantaneous value
2) peak value
3) peak-to-peak value
4) rms value
5) average value
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
1) Instantaneous Value
 At any point in time on a sine wave, the voltage (or current)
has an instantaneous value. This instantaneous value is
different at different points along the curve.
 Instantaneous values are positive during the positive
alternation and negative during the negative alternation.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
2) Peak Value
 The peak value of a sine wave is the value of voltage (or
current) at the positive or the negative maximum (peak)
with respect to zero.
 Since the positive and negative peak values are equal in
magnitude, a sine wave is characterized by a single peak
value.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
3) Peak-to-Peak Value
 The peak-to-peak value of a sine wave is the
voltage or
current from the positive peak to the negative peak.
 It is always twice the peak value as expressed in
the following equations:
V pp  2V p I pp  2I p
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
4) RMS Value
 RMS stands for root mean square. Most ac voltmeters
display rms voltage. The 120 V at your wall outlet is an rms
value.
 The rms value of a sinusoidal voltage is actually a measure
of the heating effect of the sine wave.
 The peak value of a sine wave can be converted to the
corresponding rms value using the following relationships
for either voltage or current:

V rms  0.707V p I rms  0.707I p

 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
5) Average Value
 To be useful for certain purposes such as measuring types
of voltages found in power supplies.
 Is defined over a half-cycle rather than over a full cycle.
 The average value is the total area under the half-cycle
curve divided by the distance in radians of the curve along
the horizontal axis.

V avg  2 V I a v g   2  I p
p
   
V avg  0.637V p I avg  0.637I p
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Example 3:
Determine Vp, Vpp, Vrms, and the half-cycle Vavg for the sine
wave.
 SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
Solution:

V p  4.5V (read directly from graph)

V p  2V p  2(4.5)  9V
V rms  0.707V p  0.707(4.5) 
3.18V V avg  0.637V p  0.637(4.5)
 2.87V
 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
Angular Measurement

 Angular measurements
can be made in degrees
(°) or radians.
 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
Radian/Degree Conversion
Degrees can be
converted to radians:

𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑟𝑎𝑑 = × degrees
180°

Similarly, radians can be

converted to degrees:

180° × rad
𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS

 When a time-varying ac voltage such as a sinusoidal

voltage is applied to a circuit, the circuit laws and power
formulas that you studied earlier still apply.
 Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s laws, and the power formulas
apply to ac circuits in the same way that they apply to
dc circuits.
 When you use Ohm’s law in ac circuits, remember that both
the voltage and the current must be expressed
consistently, that is, both as peak values, both as rms
values, both as average values, and so on.
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS

 If a sinusoidal voltage is applied

across a resistor as shown in the
figure, there is a sinusoidal current.
 The current is zero when the
voltage is zero and is maximum
when the voltage is maximum.
 When the voltage changes
polarity the
direction.
, current
As a result, thereverses
voltage
and current are said to be in phase
with each other.
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Power in Resistive AC Circuit
 Power in resistive ac circuits is determined the same as for
dc circuits except that you must use rms values of current
and voltage.
 The general power formulas are restated for a resistive ac
circuit as:

P  V r2m s P  I r2m s R
P  V rms I rms R
ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Example 4:
Determine the rms voltage across each resistor and the rms
current. The source voltage is given as an rms value. Also
determine the total power.
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Solution:

Total resistance:

R T  R 1  R 2  1k  5 6 0  
1.56k
Use ohm’s law to find rms current:

120V
 rms 
Vs (rms)   76.9mA
I RT 1.56k
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Solution:

The rms voltage drop across each resistor is:

V 1 ( r m s )  I r m s R1  (76.9mA)(1k)  76.9V
 (76.9mA)(560) 
V 2 ( r m s )  I r m s R 2
43.1V
Total power:
P T  I rms R T  (76.9mA) 2 (1.56k)  9.23W
2
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Capacitive Reactance, 𝑿𝒄
 In resistor, the Ohm’s Law is 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅, where 𝑅 is the opposition to
current. Capacitive reactance is the opposition to sinusoidal
current (ac), expressed in ohms. The equation for capacitive
reactance is:
1
X 
2fC
C

 Ohm’s law applies to capacitive circuits as well as to resistive

circuits:
VS
I 
XC
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Reactance for Series Capacitors
X C  XC 1  XC 2  ..  X
(tot ) CN

Reactance for Parallel Capacitors

1
X C 
1 1 1
( t ot )
  ..
X C1 X X
C 2
 CN

X C1 X C 2
For 2 capacitors in parallel: X C 
(t o t ) X C1  X C 2
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Inductive Reactance, 𝑿𝑳
 Inductive reactance is the opposition to sinusoidal current
(ac), expressed in ohms. The equation for inductive
reactance is:

X L  2fL
 Ohm’s law applies to inductive circuits as well as to
resistive
circuits and capacitive circuits:
VS
I 
X L
 ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Reactance for Series Inductors
X  X L1  X L 2  ..  X
L(tot ) LN

Reactance for Parallel Inductors

1
X L(tot ) 
1 1 1
  ..
X X X
L1 L
 LN

X L1 X L
For 2 inductors in parallel: X L(tot ) 
X2 L 1  X L2
ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Example 5:
A sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor, as shown in
the figure. The frequency of the sine wave is 1 kHz.
Determine the capacitive reactance.

ANS: Xc = 33.9 kΩ
ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Example 6:
A sinusoidal voltage is applied to the circuit in the figure. The
frequency is 10 kHz. Determine the inductive reactance..

ANS: XL = 314 Ω
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Recall from slide 32 that a rotating vector was defined
as a phasor. Phasors are useful in analysis of ac
circuits.
The complex plane is
used to plot vectors Positive
j axis
and phasors.
All real positive and negative Negative Positive
numbers are plotted along the real axis real axis
horizontal axis, which is the real
axis.
All imaginary positive and
negative numbers are plotted along
the vertical axis, which is the Negative
j axis
imaginary axis.
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Angular positions can be represented on the complex
plane measured from the positive real axis.
+j
90

2nd quadrant 1st quadrant

180  0/360

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

270
-j
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
When a point does not lie on an axis, it is a complex
number and is defined by its coordinates.

+j
Example:
Determine the coordinates for
each point.
The point in quadrant 1 is 7, j4

The point in quadrant 2 is 2, j6

The point in quadrant 3 is 4, j1

The point in quadrant 4 is 3, j8

j
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
j has the effect of rotation. A real number, when
multiplied by j places it on the +j axis, effectively
+j
rotating it through 90o.
j7

Notice that each successive

7
multiplication by j rotates the
phasor by 90o. -7 7

-j7

-j
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Rectangular Form
 The rectangular form +j
describes a phasor as the sum
of the real and the imaginary
value
( 𝑨 ) value
(𝒋𝑩):

A  jB
 For example, the phasor shown
is written in rectangular form as:
-j
−𝟒 + 𝒋𝟓
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Polar Form
 The polar form describes +j
a phasor in terms of a
(magnitude
𝑪 ) and angular position
( 𝜽)
relative to the positive real 129o
(𝒙) axis. 6.4

C  
 For example, the phasor shown
is written in polar form
-j
as:
𝟔. 𝟒 ∠ 𝟏𝟐𝟗°
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Conversion from Rectangular to Polar Form
Basic trig functions, as well as the Pythagorean theorem
allow you to convert between rectangular and polar notation
and vice-versa. Reviewing these relationships:

opposite side hypotenuse

sin  hypotenuse

adjacent side opposite side

cos  hypotenuse right
 angle
opposite side
tan  adjacent side adjacent side
hypotenuse2  adjacent side2  opposite side2
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Conversion from Rectangular to Polar Form

Converting from rectangular form (A + jB), to

polar form ( C   ) is done as follows:
2
C A B
2 2 +jB B
2 +
A
and = B
C

B
  tan 1
A
A
The method for the first quadrant
is illustrated here.
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Conversion from Polar to Rectangular Form

Converting from polar form ( C   ) to

rectangular form (A + jB), ) is done as follows:
AC
cos C = 12

and C
 = 45 o

BC B = C sin 
sin1245 to
Example: Convert 
rectangular form.
8.48 + j8.46
A = C cos 
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Mathematical Operations
+ -

8.48 + 𝑗8.48 8.48 + 𝑗8.48

+ 6.20 − 𝑗5.70 − 6.20 − 𝑗5.70
14.68 + 𝑗2.76 2.28 + 𝑗14.16
 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Mathematical Operations
× ÷
Multiply Divide
8.30∠25° 8.30∠25°
by by
12∠ − 15° 12∠ − 15°
8.30 × 12 = 8.30 ÷ 12 =
99.6 0.692
25° + (−15°) = 10° 25° − (−15°) = 40°

∴ 99.6∠10° ∴ 0.692∠40°
IMPEDANCE OF RC & RL
Impedance of RC circuits
Example:
Sketch the impedance triangle and show the values for
R = 1.2 kW and XC = 960 W.

Z  1.2 k 2 + 0.96 R = 1.2 k



k 2
0.96 k XC =
  tan1.33 k
1
1.2 k 960 
 39 Z 1.33 k 
39
IMPEDANCE OF RC & RL
Impedance of RL circuits
Example:
Sketch the impedance triangle and show the values for
R = 1.2 kW and XL = 960 W.

Z  1.2 k 2 + 0.96
Z 1.33 k
39
k 2 XL =
0.96 k
 tan 1
1.2 k
1.33 k  960 
 39
R = 1.2 k
 XC & XL
Variation of phase angle with frequency
Phasor diagrams that have reactance phasors can
only be drawn for a single frequency because X is a
function of frequency.
R
As frequency changes, the 3
Increasing f

impedance triangle for 2

1
Z3
RC circuit changes as
an XC 3 f3
illustrated here because X C
decreases with increasing Z2

f. This determines the XC 2 f2

frequency response of RC Z1

circuits.
XC 1 f1
 XC & XL
Variation of phase angle with frequency
Phasor diagrams that have reactance phasors
can only be drawn for a single frequency because X
is a of frequency.
function
Increasing f
As frequency changes, the
XL 3
impedance triangle for an RL Z3

circuit changes as
illustrated
here because XL increases XL 2
Z2
with increasing f. This
determines the frequency Z1 XL 1
response of RL circuits.
3
1 2
R
SERIES-PARALLEL RC & RL
Series-Parallel RC & RL circuits
Series-parallel RC & RL circuits are combinations of both
series and parallel elements. The solution of these circuits
is similar to resistive combinational circuits except
complex numbers must be employed.
Z1
For example, the Z2
components in the
R1 C1
green box are in
R2 C2
series: Z 1 = R1 + XC1
The
in
components
are the yellowZ box
in parallel:  Using phasor math, (and
2 R2 X C 2
R2  X C 2 keeping track of angles)
you can find the total
impedance: ZT = Z1 + Z2
SERIES-PARALLEL RC & RL
Series-Parallel RC & RL circuits
Series-parallel RC & RL circuits are combinations of both
series and parallel elements. The solution of these circuits
is similar to resistive combinational circuits except
complex numbers must be employed.

R1 R2
For example, the components
in the yellow box and those in Z1 Z2
the green box are in series: L1 L2

Z1 = R1 + XL1
and The two boxes are in parallel.
Z2 = R2 + XL2 Using phasor math, you can find
ZZ
the total impedance: Z T  1 2
Z1  2
Z
 IMPEDANCE OF RLC
Impedance of series RLC circuits
When R, L, and C are in a series circuit, the reactance of the
inductor and reactance of the capacitor tend to offset each
other, depending on the values. The total reactance is:

Xtot  X L  XC

When XL>XC, the circuit is predominantly inductive.

When XC>XL, the circuit is predominantly capacitive.
R
L
C

VS
 IMPEDANCE OF RLC
Impedance of series RLC circuits
The total impedance for the RLC circuit is given by

Z  R  jX L  jX C

In polar form, this is written

 X tot 

2 1
 tan
Z R X 
2 L C
 R 
X
R L

C
VS
 IMPEDANCE OF RLC
Impedance of series RLC circuits
Example: What is the total impedance for the
circuit?
R L
VS f = 100 kHz C

470  330 H
2000
X L  2 fLpF
 2 100 kHz330 H  207
1 1
C 
X   796 
2 fC 2 100 kHz2000 pF
Z  R  jX L  jX C  470  +j207   j796 
=470   j589  In polar form: Z  753  
51.4
 IMPEDANCE OF RLC
Impedance of series RLC circuits
Depending on the frequency, the circuit can appear to be
capacitive or inductive. The circuit in the example was
capacitive because: XC>XL

XL
XC

XL XC
f
 IMPEDANCE OF RLC
Impedance of series RLC circuits
Example: What is the total impedance for the circuit when the
frequency is increased to 400 Hz?

R L C X L  2 fL  2 400 kHz330 H  829

  1 
X
1
 199
470  C
2 fC 2 400 kHz2000 pF
330 H 2000 pF 
VS f = 400 kHz
Z  R  jX L  jX C  470  +j829   j199 
=470  + j630 

In polar form, The circuit is

Z  786 53.3 now inductive.
 IMPEDANCE OF RLC
Impedance of series RLC circuits
By changing the frequency, the circuit now appears to be
inductive because: XL>XC

XL
XL
XC
XC
f
 IMPEDANCE OF RLC
Impedance of series RLC circuits
Notice that there is a frequency at which XC=XL. This condition
is called series resonance.

X
At series resonance,
the total impedance is
a minimum. XL

XL =X C
XC
f
Series resonance
 SERIES-PARALLEL RLC
Series-parallel RLC circuits
When RLC components are in series-parallel combinations,
the rules from resistive circuits (but using complex numbers)
apply.
For example, to find the total impedance of the circuit
shown, you first calculate the impedance of the parallel
combination (in the yellow box). Then add the result to the
capacitor’s reactance.
C
Example:
Calculate the total impedance 2700 pF R L
of the circuit. VS = 1.0 k 700 H
200
kHz
 SERIES-PARALLEL RLC
Series-parallel RLC circuits
Solution:
1
X L  2 fL  j0.880 k XC    j0.295
2 fC k
RX L
The impedance of the yellow box is: Z ybox  R  jX
L

1.000.8890  
Z ybox   1.0  j0.88   0.66156.6 k  0.364 k  j0.552 k
k
The total impedance is Ztot  X C  Zybox C

Ztot   j0.295  0.364  j0.552 k 2700 pF R L

VS 1.0 k 700 H
= 0.364 k + j0.257 k = kHz
200
 0.44535.2 k