CHE 321 Unit Operation 1 (3 Units) : 1: Drying, Conveying 2: Sedimentation, Clarification

CHE 321
UNIT OPERATION 1 (3 UNITS)
Particulate Separation Operations
1: Drying, Conveying
2: Sedimentation, Clarification.
RECOMMENDED READING/TEXT
• Chemical Engineering Volume 2 by Coulson
& Richardson Engineering
• Transport Processes & Separation process

Principles by Geankopolis C.J.
• Principles of Unit Operations by Foust A.S.

• Type II: Flocculent settling;
This is defined as a condition where particles initially settle independently

but flocculate in the depth of the clarification unit thus they increase in
size and settle at a faster velocity.
Flocculation is a process of aggregation and attrition. Aggregation can

occur by Brownian diffusion, differential settling, and velocity
gradients caused by fluid shear. Attrition is caused mainly by excessive
velocity gradients.
Examples of Flocculent Settling:
− Primary settling of wastewater
− Settling of chemically coagulated water and wastewater

• Type III: Hindered settling (Zone Settling):
When the particles are crowded, they settle at a lower rate. As

the concentration of particles in a suspension is increased, a point
is reached where particles are so close together that they no
longer settle independently of one another and the velocity fields
of the fluid displaced by adjacent particles, overlap. There is
also a net upward flow of liquid displaced by the settling
particles. This results in a reduced particle-settling velocity and
the effect is known as hindered settling.
Characteristics of Hindered settling;
• It is the settling of an intermediate concentration of particles
• The particles are close to each other
• Inter-particle forces hinder settling of neighboring particles
• Particles remain in fixed position relative to each other
• Mass of particles settle as a zone

Type IV: Compression settling:
This occurs when the particle concentration is so high that
particles at one level are mechanically influenced by particles
on lower levels. The settling velocity then drastically reduces
to low solids concentration. A typical occurrence of this type of
settling is the removal of sand particles. In this settling, a particle
will accelerate until the drag force, FD, equals the impelling (due
to weight) force, FI; then settling occurs at a constant velocity,
Vs.
Characteristics of Compression settling:
• Settling of particles that are of high concentration
• Particles touch each other

• Settling occurs by compression of the compacting mass
• It occurs in the lower depths of final clarifiers of activated sludge

Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation
1. Simple gravity settling tank; A simple gravity is used for

removing a dispersed liquid phase from another phase. The
velocity horizontally to the right must be slow enough to allow
time for the smallest droplets to rise. Particles settle towards the
floor at their terminal velocities.
2. Spitzkasten Classifier: It consists of a series of conical vessels
of increasing diameter in the direction of flow. The slurry enters
the first vessel, where the largest and fastest-settling particles are
separated. The overflow goes to the next vessel, where another
separation occurs.
3. Sedimentation thickener: Industrially, sedimentation operations
are often carried out continuously in equipment called
thickeners. In the thickener the entering slurry spreads radially
through the cross section of the thickner and the liquid flows
upward and out the overflow.
8.2.2 CLARIFICATION
• Clarification is the general term used to describe the way
suspended solids are separated from a liquid (water).
• Clarification is the process of settling. For a settling
process, the velocity of water is lowered below the
suspension velocity and suspended particles settle out of
water due to gravity.

• Suspended matter in raw water supplies is removed by various
methods to provide water suitable for domestic purposes and
most industrial requirements. The suspended matter can
consist of large solids, settleable by gravity alone without any
external aids, and non settleable material, often colloidal in
nature. Removal is generally accomplished by coagulation,
flocculation, and sedimentation.

• Solids-contact clarifiers, also known as upflow solids-
contact clarifiers or upflow sludge-blanket clarifiers
combine coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation
within a single basin. Solids-contact clarifiers are often
found in packaged plants and in cold climates where
sedimentation must occur indoors.
• Coagulation is the process of destabilization by
charge neutralization. Once neutralized, particles no
longer repel each other and can be brought together.
Coagulation is necessary for the removal of the
colloidal-sized suspended matter.
• Flocculation is the process of bringing together the
destabilized, or "coagulated," particles to form a larger
agglomeration, or floc.
• Sedimentation refers to the physical removal from suspension, or
settling, that occurs once the particles have been coagulated and
flocculated. Sedimentation or subsidence alone, without prior
coagulation, results in the removal of only relatively coarse
suspended solids.
• Settled solids are removed as sludge, and floating solids are

removed as scum.
• In most municipal wastewater treatment plants, the treatment unit
which immediately follows the grit channel is the sedimentation
and flotation unit, which is also known as the primary.
Figure 1: A Typical Clarifier
• A typical plant may have clarifiers located at two different
points. The one which immediately follows the bar screen, grit
channel is called the Primary Clarifier, because it is the first
clarifier in the plant. The other, which follows other types of
treatment units, is called the Secondary or final clarifier. The two
types of clarifiers operate almost exactly the same way.
• In primary clarifier only large particles settle at the bottom while
smaller particles remain in the suspension. Hence the need for a
secondary clarifier and other processes to achieve a complete
settlement.
• The main difference between primary and secondary clarifiers is
in the density of the sludge handled. Primary sludges are usually
denser than secondary sludges. Effluent from a secondary
clarifier is normally clearer than primary effluent.
Figure 2: Typical clarification process
• To calculate the efficiency of any wastewater treatment process,
you need to collect samples of the influent and the effluent of the
process, preferably composite samples for a 24- hour period.
• Next, measure the particular water quality indicators. For
example, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), suspended
solids you are interested in and calculate the treatment efficiency.
Calculations of treatment efficiency are for process control
purposes. Your main concern must be the quality of the plant
effluent, regardless of percent of wastes removed.
Example:
The influent BOD to a primary clarifier is 200 mg/l, and the effluent BOD is
140 mg/l. What is the efficiency of the primary clarifier in removing BOD?
Solution
Given: Influent BOD, 200mg/l
Effluent BOD, 140 mg/l
Calculate the BOD removal efficiency
Efficiency % = (In - Out) x 100%

In
= (200mg/l - 140 mg/l) x 100%
200 mg/l
= 60 mg/l x 100%
200 mg/l
= (0.30)(100%)
= 30% BOD removal
Typical Clarifier Efficiencies
The following is a list of some typical percentages for primary
clarifier efficiencies:
Water Quality Indicator Expected Removal Efficiency
Settleable Solids 95% to 99%
Suspended Solids 40% to 60%
Total Solids 10% to 15%
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD) 20% to 50%
Bacteria 25% to 75%
pH generally will not be affected significantly by a clarifier.
You can expect wastewater to have a pH of about 6.5 to 8.0
depending on the region, water supply and wastes
discharged into the collection system.
Clarifier efficiencies are affected by many factors, including:
1. Types of solids in the wastewater, especially if there is a

significant amount of industrial waste.
2. Age (time in collection system) of wastewater when it reaches the
plant. Older wastewater becomes stale; solids do not settle
properly because gas bubbles cling on the particles and tend to
hold them in suspension.
3. Rate of wastewater flow as compared to design flow. This is
called the “hydraulic loading.”
4. Mechanical conditions and cleanliness of clarifier.

5. Proper sludge withdrawal. If sludge is allowed to remain in the
tank it tends to gasify and the entire sludge blanket (depth) may
rise to the water surface in the clarifier.
6. Suspended solids, which are returned to the primary clarifier

from other treatment processes, may not settle completely.
Sources of these solids include waste activated sludge,
supernatant and sludge dewatering facilities (concentrate from
centrifuges and filtrate from filters).

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CHE 321

UNIT OPERATION 1 (3 UNITS)

Particulate Separation Operations

• Transport Processes & Separation process

• Principles of Unit Operations by Foust A.S.

This is defined as a condition where particles initially settle independently

Flocculation is a process of aggregation and attrition. Aggregation can

Examples of Flocculent Settling:

− Primary settling of wastewater

− Settling of chemically coagulated water and wastewater

When the particles are crowded, they settle at a lower rate. As

• Mass of particles settle as a zone

• Particles touch each other

• It occurs in the lower depths of final clarifiers of activated sludge

1. Simple gravity settling tank; A simple gravity is used for

suspended solids are separated from a liquid (water).

• Clarification is the process of settling. For a settling

process, the velocity of water is lowered below the

suspension velocity and suspended particles settle out of

water due to gravity.

methods to provide water suitable for domestic purposes and

most industrial requirements. The suspended matter can

consist of large solids, settleable by gravity alone without any

external aids, and non settleable material, often colloidal in

nature. Removal is generally accomplished by coagulation,

flocculation, and sedimentation.

• Settled solids are removed as sludge, and floating solids are

Efficiency % = (In - Out) x 100%

1. Types of solids in the wastewater, especially if there is a

4. Mechanical conditions and cleanliness of clarifier.

6. Suspended solids, which are returned to the primary clarifier

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