PDC Unit 1 PPT VL
PDC Unit 1 PPT VL
PDC Unit 1 PPT VL
Prepared by
K.Gopavanitha
Assistant Professor
Basics
• Analog signal: Most
natural quantities that
we see are analog and
vary continuously.
Analog systems can
generally handle higher
power than digital
systems.
Cont….
• Digital systems can process, store and transmit data efficiently
• Digital electronics uses circuits that have two states, which are
represented by two different voltage levels called HIGH and
LOW . The voltages represent numbers in the binary system
LINEAR
WAVESHAPING
What is linear?
• Linear elements :Resistor ,capacitors and inductors are called
linear elements because the current passing to the elements is
proportional to the applied voltage, there is a linear relation
between current and voltage.
V =V
t>0
t
t=0
Pulse
The pulse amplitude is „V‟ and the pulse duration is tp.
Vi
V 0≤t≤tp Vi=V
Otherwise Vi=0
0 t=0 t
t=tp
Square Wave
• A wave form which maintains itself at one constant level v1 for a time T1
and at other constant Level V11 for a time T2 and which is repetitive with
a period T=T1+T2 is called a square-wave.
T1 T2
Ramp
A waveform which is zero for t<0 and which increases linearly with time for t>0.
Vi
Vi =αt
Vi =αt , t>0
t
0
Exponential
• The exponential
waveform input is given
by where T is the time
constant of the
exponential input
High Pass RC Circuit
C
+ +
R XC 1
Vi Vo 2f
C
- -
If f=low, Xc becomes high
C act as open circuit,
so the Vo=0.
i R
V in Vin
i= = Vin V
R - j XC R- j
2πf C _ O
_
i= Vin
1-
j
R
2πfRC
Vin ×R
VO =i R= = Vin
1- j
j
R 1- 2πfR
2πfR
C
C
VO 1
=
Vin
1+j -f1
f
VO 1
= 2 A 0.707
V in
f1
1+
f
f
= 1
1 =0.707
VO frequency
At the = f = f1
V 1+1 2
in
At f = f1 the gain is 0.707 or this level corresponds to a signal reduction of 3
decibels(dB).
f1 is referred to as Lower 3-dB frequency.
Response Of High Pass RC Circuit to Step
Input.
• A step waveform is defined by the following expression:
Tilt is defined as the decay in the amplitude of the output voltage wave due to the
input voltage maintaining constant level
From the above fig
........... (a)
For a symmetric square wave T1 = T2 = T/2. And, because of symmetry:
...............(b)
From Eq (a)
But
Therefore,
................(c)
From Eq (b) V1 = −V2
Substituting in Eq. (c):
V1e−T1/τ + V1 = V = V1(1 + e−T1/τ) = V
Thus
For a symmetric square wave, as T1 = T2 = T/2, then from above Eqwe can
written as:
But
There is a tilt in the output waveform. The percentage tilt, P, is defined as:
If T/2τ << 1,
Therefore
Which becomes
1
XC 2
Cf
Let V’ be the initial voltage across the capacitor. Writing KVL around the loop in
low pass RC circuit
Expression for rise time
• When a step signal is applied, the rise time tr is defined as the time taken
by the output voltage waveform to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value: It
gives an indication of how fast the circuit can respond to a discontinuity in
voltage. Assuming that the capacitor is initially uncharged, the output voltage
shown in Figure (b) at any instant of time is given by
Relation between rise time and upper 3-dB frequency
We know that the upper 3-dB frequency (same as bandwidth) of a low-pass circuit is
Thus, the rise time is inversely proportional to the upper 3-dB frequency. The
time constant (Τ= RC) of a circuit is defined as the time taken by the output to
rise to 63.2% of the amplitude of the input step.
Response Of Low Pass RC Circuit to Pulse Input
• The pulse shown in Figure (a) is equivalent to a positive step followed by a delayed negative
step as shown in Figure (b). So, the response of the low-pass RC circuit to a pulse for times
less than the pulse width tp is the same as that for a step input and is given by v0(t) = V(l – e-
t/RC). The responses of the low-pass RC circuit for time constant RC » tp, RC smaller than tp
and RC very small compared to tp are shown in Figures (c), (d), and (e) respectively.
• If the time constant RC of the circuit is very large, at the end of the pulse, the output voltage
will
• be Vp(t) = V(1 – e-tp/RC) and the output will decrease to zero from this value with a time
constant
• RC as shown in Figure (c). Observe that the pulse waveform is distorted when it is passed
through a linear network. The output will always extend beyond the pulse width tp, because
• whatever charge has accumulated across the capacitor C during the pulse cannot leak off
instantaneously.
If the time constant RC of the circuit is very small, the capacitor charges and
discharges very quickly and the rise time tr will be small and so the distortion in
the wave shape is small. For minimum distortion (i.e. for preservation of wave
shape), the rise time must be small compared to the pulse width tp
Response Of Low Pass RC Circuit to
Square Input
• A square wave is a periodic waveform which maintains itself at one constant level
V’ with respect to ground for a time T1 and then changes abruptly to another level
V", and remains constant at that level for a time T2, and repeats itself at regular
intervals of T = T1 + T2. A square wave may be treated as a series of positive and
negative steps.
•
For the square wave shown in Figure (a), the output waveform will be as
shown in Figure (b) if the time constant RC of the circuit is small compared to
the period of the input waveform. In this case, the wave shape is preserved. If
the time constant is comparable with the period of the input square wave, the
output will be as shown id Figure (c). The output rises and falls exponentially.
If the time constant is very large compared to the period of the input
waveform, the output consists of exponential sections, which are essentially
linear as indicated in
Figure (d). Since the average voltage across R is zero, the dc voltage at the
output is the same
as that of the input. This average value is indicated as Vdc in all the waveforms.
Response Of Low Pass RC Circuit to
Ramp Input
When the time constant is very small relative to the total ramp time T, the ramp will be
transmitted with minimum distortion. The output follows the input but is delayed by one time
constant RC from the input (except near the origin where there is distortion) as shown in Figure
(a). If the time constant is large compared with the sweep duration, i.e. if RCIT » 1, the output
will be highly distorted as shown in Figure (b).
This shows that a quadratic response is obtained for a linear input and hence the circuit
acts as an integrator for RC/T » 1.
The transmission error et for a ramp input is defined as the difference between the input
and the output divided by the input at the end of the ramp, i.e. at t = T.
For RC/T « 1,
Response Of Low Pass RC Circuit For
Exponential Input
• For the low-pass RC circuit exponential input applied as shown in Figure .
The exponential equation vi(t ) = V(l – e-tlτ), where T is the time constant
of the input waveform.
Low Pass RC Circuit Acts As An
Integrator
• The time constant is very large in comparison with the time required for
the input signal to make an appreciable change, the circuit is called an
“Integrator”.
• As RC>>T the voltage drop across C will be very small in comparison to the
voltage drop across R and we may consider that the total input Vi appear and
across R, then
Vi =iR
VO=
1 Vi
RC dt
Advantages Of Integrator Over
Differentiator
• Integrators are almost invariably preferred over differentiators in analog
computer applications for the following reasons.
• The gain of the integrator decreases with frequency where as the gain of
the differentiator increases linearly with frequency. It is easier to stabilize
the former than the latter with respect to spurious oscillations.
• From this equation, it is evident that the output is smaller than the input,
which is the main purpose of an attenuator—to reduce the amplitude of
the signal. Attenuators are used when the signal amplitude is very large.
Let us measure a voltage, say, 5000 V, using a CRO; such a large
voltage may not be handled by the amplifier in a CRO. Therefore, to be
able to measure such a voltage we first attenuate the voltage by a known
amount, say by a factor of 10(α = 0.1), so that the voltage that is actually
connected to the CRO is only 500 V. The output of the attenuator is thus
reduced depending on the choice of R1 and R2.
FIGURE: A resistance attenuator
FIGURE(a): The attenuator output
connected to amplifier input
Uncompensated Attenuators
Thus, the initial output voltage is determined by C1 and C2. As t → ∞, the capacitors are
fully charged and they behave as open circuits for dc. Hence, the resultant output is:
Perfect compensation is obtained if, vo(0+) = vo(∞) From this using above Eqs., we get:
FIGURE (g) A perfectly compensated
FIGURE (h) An over-compensated
attenuator (C1 = C2)
attenuator (C1 > C2)
Frequency Response:
if
If
If
• The frequency response indicates that the frequencies below fh will be blocked by
the circuit and the frequencies above fh will be transmitted.
0.707
.
f
If
If
If
If
1
0.707
The frequency response indicates that the frequencies below fl will be transmitted by the
circuit and the frequencies above fl will be blocked.
Response of RL Low pass filter to a step
input
=
Fig. Response of series RLC circuit to a step input for three different cases
On solving this equations then we get under, over
and critical damped conditions.
Parallel RLC Circuit
As the parallel RLC circuit is a dual of the series RLC circuit. So the output voltage of it
will have the same shape as the current waveform of the series RLC circuit.
Ringing circuit
• Ringing circuit those which generate a sequence of pulses spared
regularly. In timing operations in automatic control circuits.
• Ringing circuits have under damped oscillations depending on the
number of ringing duty cycles required. It is sometime required to
obtain the values of ‘Q’ of a circuit.
• Which is to ring for a given number of ‘N’ cycles before the
amplitude falls to 1/e of its initial value.
From equation
It is seen that decrement is obtained
Where
=N and
We have
For Q =12 the circuit will ring for cycles before the amplitude falls to
37% of its initial value.