2016 10 28 Estuarine Circulation

Land-Ocean Interactions:
Estuarine Circulation
Land-Ocean Interactions:
Estuarine Circulation
Estuary: a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which
has a free connection with the open sea and within which
sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived
from land drainage. (Pritchard,1963)
River
Estuary head
Estuary
Estuary mouth
Coastal Ocean
Schematic of a typical Estuary
Week-long averaged data for 31 May – 6 June from a 2011 year-long model simulation. All
SSC data corresponds to the colorbar in panel A. A) plan view of the depth-averaged SSC
(brown) contoured with salinity. B-C) Along-channel distributions of SSC for medium sand,
fine sand, and silt sediment types (Table 3.1) respectively. The along-channel distance
follows the thalweg. E) Across-channel distribution of SSC (sum of all sediment types).
(from: McSweeney, J., 2016, PhD thesis, Rutgers University)

re sh
yf
ver
y
salt
it e
qu
die nt
g r a
ns ity
De
a x is of
g
alon y
r
estua
i n t he l y
d g
… an al (stron
c
verti ied)
if
strat
Stratification evolves
over time in response to
freshwater inflow –
shows time scale of
estuary residence time
is long
Smaller estuary: salinity shows
tidal variability
Characteristics of estuaries
• Most estuaries:
– strong tidal forcing
– large density difference between river and ocean
– complex topography
– Long and narrow – can often be approximated by 2-dimensional vertical/along-axis flow
(relatively little across axis flow)
• Mathematically we have equations for salt, mass (volume) and momentum

– significant forces: friction (mixing), pressure, nonlinearity, acceleration (time
variability)
– typically small: wind, Coriolis, longer that tidal period coastal sea level (tides are
important)
– most common dynamic balance is between pressure and friction/mixing
• Mixing affects the salt balance …
• … which affects the pressure distribution and pressure gradient
• Can classify estuaries based on their physics (relative magnitude of different

terms), or topography/geomorphology
Physics essentials:
• Fresh river water encounters salty ocean water
• Fresh = light; salty = heavy
• Freshwater flows seaward at the surface
• Get landward flow of more dense, salty, water
– estuarine or gravitational or baroclinic circulation
– time scales of ~1 day … so Coriolis force is usually of
secondary importance
– circulation is evident averaged over a few tidal cycles
– mixing and entrainment processes are central to
details of the salt and volume transport balance
Topography classification:
Fjords
• Glacial valleys flooded by
rising sea level
• Found poleward of 43o

latitude
• Narrow, deep inlets
• Shallow sill connect fjord

with ocean
• Freshwater flows out in a

thin surface layer
• Deep water is near

oceanic salinity and
relatively motionless
Coastal Plain Estuaries
• River valleys flooded by sea
level rise following glacial
period (sometimes sediment-
filled fjords)
• Little sedimentation
• Ancient river valleys determine

the topography
• Shallower than fjords and more

uniform in depth
• Extent of salt influence

depends on forcing more than
bathymetry
• Tides are often the most

important source of mixing
Bar-built and Lagoon Estuaries
• Drowned river valleys with high
sedimentation rates
• Very shallow
• Often branch toward mouth into a

system of shallow waterways (lagoons)
• Narrow connections to the ocean
• Sediment accumulates at mouth

contributing to bar formation
• Shallow lagoons can be well-mixed by

tides and winds
• Complex topography: channels, island

and shoals
• Multiple sources of freshwater

Classification based on salinity structure
(= physics yay!)
• The majority of estuaries in populated coastal regions

are in the coastal plain category (locally: Chesapeake,
Delaware, Hudson)
• Within this group there are large differences in circulation

patterns, density, residence time, and mixing
• A better classification is one based on salinity and flow

characteristics
Physics essentials:
• Fresh river water encounters salty ocean water
• Fresh = light; salty = heavy
• Freshwater flows seaward at the surface
• Get landward flow of more dense, salty, water
– estuarine or gravitational or baroclinic circulation
Mixing across the
strong vertical salinity – time scales of ~1 day … so Coriolis force is
gradient is significant usually of secondary importance
Turbulence driven by – circulation is evident averaged over a few tidal
velocity shear affects cycles
mixing rates
– mixing and entrainment processes are central
Density stratification
works against mixing
to details of the salt and volume transport balance
but does not prevent
it.
to ocean river
to ocean river
to ocean river
Profiles of velocity, density anomaly, and eddy viscosity as they evolve over a tidal period for the strain-induced periodic
stratification regime: There is complete destratification during the flood tide, leading to strong mixing and almost no vertical
shear. On the ebb tide, substantial shear may develop due to suppression of turbulence by stratification, which originates from
the straining of the horizontal density gradient. The stratification at the end of the flood tide results from lateral straining,
whereas the increasing stratification during the ebb tide results from along-estuary straining.
Geyer, W.R. And P. MacCready, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 2014. 46:175–97, doi: 10.1146/annurev-fluid-010313-141302
ocean
river
ocean
river
ocean
river
Mass transport in a highly
stratified estuary
River volume flow is R.
Outflow from the

estuary in the upper
layer is 10R.
This is balanced by
oceanic inflow of 9R.
The net outflow at the

ocean end is, of course,
still only 1R.
© 1996 M. Tomczak
Salt balance:
R V1 , S 1
Salt in = V2S2 + R So
Salt out = V1S1
V1S1 = V2S2 V2 , S 2
(averaged over several tidal cycles)

Vertical flux of
V1 = V2 S2/S1 salt through
entrainment
Volume balance:
R + V2 = V1 R V1 , S 1 V3 , S 3
R = V1 – V2
= V2(S2/S1) – V2
V2 , S2 V4 , S 4
= V2(S2/S1 – 1)
Difference between upper and
V2 = R / (S2/S1– 1) or lower transport is always R
= S1 R / (S2 – S1)
Salinity in a salt wedge estuary
Top: As a function of depth

and distance along estuary
Bottom: Vertical salinity

profiles for stations 1-4
Surface salinity is close to

zero at all stations. Bottom
salinity is close to oceanic.
© 1996 M. Tomczak
Salinity in a slightly stratified
(partially-mixed) estuary
Top: As a function of depth

and distance along estuary
Mixing is indicated by the
circles.
Surface and bottom salinity

increase from station 1 to 4,
but surface salinity is always
slightly fresher.
© 1996 M. Tomczak
Salinity in a vertically well-mixed estuary
Top: As a function of
depth
and distance along
estuary
Surface and bottom

salinity increase from
station 1 to 4, but surface
and bottom salinity are
always nearly identical
© 1996 M. Tomczak
3-dimensional a. Slightly stratified
estuary with
circulation weak Coriolis
effect (northern
hemisphere).
b. Slightly stratified
with strong
Coriolis effect
c. Vertically mixed
estuary with
Coriolis effect
Blue (dark) arrows

indicate
upper layer flow, and red
(light) arrows bottom flow
© 1996 M. Tomczak
Secondary flows
Density driven lateral tidal cells - axial convergence
Salt-wedge
Partially
Mixed
Well-Mixed

2016 10 28 Estuarine Circulation

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Land-Ocean Interactions:

(from: McSweeney, J., 2016, PhD thesis, Rutgers University)

• Mathematically we have equations for salt, mass (volume) and momentum

• Can classify estuaries based on their physics (relative magnitude of different

• Found poleward of 43o

• Narrow, deep inlets

• Shallow sill connect fjord

• Freshwater flows out in a

• Deep water is near

• Ancient river valleys determine

• Shallower than fjords and more

• Extent of salt influence

• Tides are often the most

• Often branch toward mouth into a

• Narrow connections to the ocean

• Sediment accumulates at mouth

• Shallow lagoons can be well-mixed by

• Complex topography: channels, island

• Multiple sources of freshwater

• The majority of estuaries in populated coastal regions

• Within this group there are large differences in circulation

• A better classification is one based on salinity and flow

Outflow from the

The net outflow at the

(averaged over several tidal cycles)

Top: As a function of depth

Bottom: Vertical salinity

Surface salinity is close to

Top: As a function of depth

Surface and bottom salinity

Surface and bottom

Blue (dark) arrows

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