PRASHANTH B N

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering
 Introduction
 Term “Robot” derived from Czech word robota, meaning
“forced labor” by Karel Capek, around 1921.
 Robots are highly automated mechanical manipulators
controlled by computers.
 Robotics Industries Association (RIA) defines a Robot as:
"A programmable multi-function manipulator designed to
move material, parts, or specialized devices through
variable programmed motion for the performance of a
variety of tasks”.
 International Standards Organization (ISO) describes
Industrial Robot as: “An automatically controlled,
reprogrammable, multipurpose, programmable manipulator
in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or
mobile for use in industrial automation applications.”
 Introduction
 In 1950s Isaac Asimov Came up with laws of robotics in
Robot:
 First law (Human Safety): A robot may not injure a
human being, or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm.
 Second law (Robots are Slaves): A robot must obey
orders given it by human beings, except where such
orders would conflict with the First Law.
 Third law (Robot Survival): A robot must protect
its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Law.
 Robots were originally used in hazardous operations such
as Handling toxic and radioactive materials, loading &
unloading hot workpieces from furnaces and handling
them in foundries.
 Automation and Robots
Automation is a technology concerned with the use of
Mechanical, Electrical/Electronics and computer based systems
to control and operate production processes. For example,
Mechanized assembly machines, NC machine tools, Feedback
control systems and robots.
Robots are Mechanical devices that assist Industrial
automation.
Automation is generally regarded as being able to be divided
into 3 types:
 Fixed Automation (Hard Automation)
 Programmable Automation (Soft Automation)
 Flexible Automation
 Types of Automation
Fixed automation
 Used when the volume of production is very high and it is,
therefore, appropriate to design specialized equipment to
process products at high rates and low cost.
 Eg: automobile industry, where highly integrated transfer line
are used to perform machine operation on engine and
transmission components.
Programmable Automation
 Used when volume production is relatively low.
 Production equipment is designed to make suitable changes
in a product configuration.
 Program is read into the equipment & equipment performs
particular sequence or assembly of operations to make the
product.
 Types of Automation
Flexible automation
 Most suitable for the mid-volume production range.
 Typically consists of a series of workstation that are
interconnected by material-handling and storage equipment
to process different product configuration at the same time to
control manufacturing system.
 There is no lost production time while reprogramming the
system and altering the physical set up.
 Eg: Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS), Computer
Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Types of Automation
 History and Evolution of Robots
1921: R.U.R. (Rossum‘s Universal Robots), a play by Czech
writer Karel Capek features the first mention of the word
‘robot’, from the Czech word ‘robota’, meaning ‘forced
labour’.
1956 - The world's first robot company, Unimate.
1961 – Unimate, the first industrial robot goes online in a GM
automobile factory in New Jersey, USA.
1963 – The first artificial robotic arm to be controlled by a
computer is designed.
1974 – Asia’s first robot, IRB 6, is developed.
 History and Evolution of Robots
Late 1970s: The robot industry starts its rapid growth, with a
new robot or company entering the market every month.
The development of robotics technology followed the
development of numerical control, and the two technologies
are quite similar.
NC machines are designed to perform specific processes
whereas, robots are designed for a wider variety of tasks.”
 Technology of Robots
Robot technology is an applied science that is referred to as a
combination of Machine tools and Computer applications.
Includes such diverse fields as Machine design, Control theory,
Microelectronics, Computer programming, Artificial
intelligence, Human factors, and Production theory.
In general, there are Industrial, Laboratory, Mobile, Military,
Security, Service, Hobby, Home and Personal Robots.
 General Characteristics
A specialized machine tools with a degree of flexibility that
distinguishes them from fixed-purpose automation.
Is essentially a mechanical arm that is bolted to the floor, a
machine, the ceiling, or, in some cases the wall fitted with its
mechanical hand, and taught to do repetitive task in a
controlled, ordered environment.
Ability to move mechanical arm to perform work.
Robot interface with their work environment once a
mechanical hand has been attached to the robot’s tool
mounting plate.
 Definitions
Work Envelope: The set of points representing the maximum
extent or reach of the robot hand or working tool in all
directions.
Payload: The ability to carry, continuously and satisfactorily,
a given maximum weight at a given speed.
Velocity: The maximum speed at which the tip of a robot is
capable of moving at full extension, expressed in inches or
millimeters per second.
Cycle: Time it takes for the robot to complete one cycle of
picking up a given object at a given height, moving it to a
given distance, lowering it, releasing it, and returning to the
starting point.
 Definitions
Accuracy: A robot’s ability to position the end effector at a
specified point in space upon receiving a control command
without previously having attained that position.
Repeatability: The ability of a robot to return consistently to a
previously defined and achieved location.
Resolution: The smallest incremental change in position that it
make or its control system can measure.
Size: The physical size of a robot, which influences its
capacity and its capabilities.
Working Envelope
 Basic Components
The Basic Components of an Industrial Robot are the
 Manipulator
 End Effector (which is the part of the Manipulator)
 Power supply
 Controller

The Manipulator, which is the robot’s arm, consists of

segments jointed together with axes capable of motion in
various directions allowing the robot to perform work.
The End effector which is a Gripper tool, a special device, or
fixture attached to the robot’s arm, actually performs the work.
Power supply provides and regulates the energy that is
converted to motion by the robot actuator, and it may be either
Electric, Pneumatic, or Hydraulic.
 Basic Components
The Controller initiates, terminates, and coordinates the motion
of sequences of a robot. Also it accepts the necessary inputs to
the robot and provides the outputs to interface with the outside
world.

Basic Components of an Industrial Robot

 Manipulator
A mechanical unit that provides motion similar to that of a
human arm.
Primary function is to provide the specific motions that will
enable the tooling at the end of the arm to do required work.
A robot movement can be divided into two general categories:
arm and body (shoulder and elbow) motions and wrist motions.
The individual joint motions associated with these categories
are referred to as degree of freedom.
Each axis is equal to one degree of freedom. Typically an
industrial robots are equipped with 4- 6 degrees of freedom.
The wrist can reach a point in space with specific orientation
by any of three motions: a pitch, or up-and-down-motion; a
yaw, or side-to-side motion; and a roll, or rotating motion.
 Manipulator
The joint labeled pitch, yaw & roll are called orientation axes.
The points that manipulator bends, slides, or rotates are called
joints or position axes.
Manipulation is carried out using mechanical devices, such as
linkages, gears, actuators, and feedback devices.
Position axes are called as world coordinates, is identified as
being fixed location within the manipulator that serves as
absolute frame of reference.
The mechanical design of a robot manipulator relates directly to
its work envelope and motion characteristics.
The x-axis travel moves the manipulator in an in-and-out
motion, y-axis motion causes the manipulator to move side-to-
side and the z axis motion causes the manipulator to move in
and up and down motion.
 Manipulator

Parts of a Manipulator: The industrial robot manipulator has a body, arm,

and wrist.
 End Effector
The device that is mechanically opened and closed.
Act as the tool- mounting plate.
The origin of the coordinate system or the point of action of
the tool attached to the robot arm is Tool Center Point (TCP).
End effectors generally custom-made to meet special handling
requirements.
Mechanical grippers are most commonly used and are
equipped with two or more fingers.
The selection of an appropriate end effector for a specific
application depends upon factors such as payload,
environment, reliability, and cost.
The special tooling for a robot that enables it to perform a
specific task.
 End Effector
Two types:
 Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., parts)
during work cycle.
 Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray
painting.

End effector holding a Gripper

End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
What is gripper? What is tool?
 Mechanical grippers
 Vacuum systems
 Magnetic Pickups
 Tools
 End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
Depending on the type of operation, conventional end effectors
are equipped with various devices and tool attachments, as
follows:
 Grippers, hooks, scoops, electromagnets, vacuum cups, and
adhesive fingers for material handling.
 Spray gun for painting.
 Attachments for spot and arc welding and arc cutting.
 Power tools such as drills, nut drivers, and burrs.
 Special devices and fixtures for machining and assembly.
 Measuring instruments, such as dial indicators, depth gauges
etc.
End-effectors: Grippers and Tools

Grippers and Tools

End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
It can easily handle heavy weights or bulky objects. It is
designed to hold the object so that its center of gravity
(CG) is kept very closed to the wrist of hand. The short
distance between the wrist and the CG minimizes the
twisting tendency of a heavy or bulky object.

Cam-operated hand
 End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
This special hand, with pair of pneumatic actuators, is one of
the many special hand designs for industrial robots. It is
suitable for parts of light weight.

Special hand with Modular gripper

 End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
This hand is specially designed for industrial robots to
securely grasping of relatively short tubes.

Special hand for Glass tubes

 End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
This simple vacuum cup hand is suitable for Handling fragile
parts such as cathode ray tube face plates (Illustrated).

Simple Vacuum cup hand

 End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
Magnetic handling is most suitable for parts of ferrous
contents.
Magnets can be scientifically designed and made in numerous
shapes and sizes to perform various tasks.

Magnetic pick up
 End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
Ladling hot materials such as molten metal is a hot and
hazardous job for which industrial robots are well­suited.
In piston casting permanent mold die casting and related
applications, the robot can be programmed to scoop up and
transfer the molten metal from the pot to the mold, and then do
the pouring.

Ladle
 End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
Ability of the industrial robot to do multi pass
spraying with controlled velocity fits it for
automated application of primers, paints, and
ceramic or glass frits, as well as application of
masking agents used before plating. For short
or medium‑length production runs, the
industrial robot would often be a better choice
than a special purpose setup requiring a
lengthy change‑over procedure for each
different part. Also the robot can spray parts
with compound curvatures and multiple
surfaces.
Spray gun
End-effectors: Grippers and Tools
A single industrial robot can also handle several tools
sequentially, with an automatic tool‑changing operation
programmed into the robot's memory. The tools can be of
different types or sizes, permitting multiple operations an
the same work piece.

Tool changing
 Power Supply
The function of the power supply is to provide and regulate
energy that is required for a robot to be operated.
There are three basic types of power supplies:
 Electric
 Hydraulic
 Pneumatic
Electricity is the most common source of power and is used
extensively with industrial robots.
The second most common is pneumatic, and the least common
is hydraulic power.
The power supply has a direct relation to the payload rating.
 Controller
The controller is a communication and information processing
device that initiates, terminates and coordinates the motions
and sequences of a robot.
It accepts necessary inputs to the robot and provides the output
drive signals to a controlling motor or actuator to correspond
with the robot movements and outside world.
The heart of the controller is the computer and its solid-state
memory.
The computer controls the motion of the robot arm by means
of drive signals that pass through the drive interface to the
actuators on the arm.
 Robot Anatomy
Robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction and
characteristics of the body, arm, and wrist, which are
components of robot manipulator.
Movements between the various components of the body, arm,
and wrist are provided by a series of joints.
Attached to the robot wrist is the end effector (or end-of-arm
tooling) that performs the work.
The end effector is not considered a part of the robot’s
anatomy.
Robot anatomy deals with:
 Types and sizes of these joints and links
 Other aspects of the manipulator’s physical construction
 Robot Anatomy
What is a Joint?
 A joint of robot is similar to a joint in
the human body.
 Each joint gives the robot with a Joint
degree-of-freedom (d.o.f) of motion.
 In the nearly all cases, only 1 d.o.f is
allowed to a joint.
Link
What is a Robot link?
 Links are rigid components that form a
chain connected together by joints
 Each joint has two links, known as an
input link and an output link
 Robot Anatomy
Manipulator consists of joints and links
 Joints provide relative motion
 Links are rigid members between joints
 Various joint types: linear and rotary
Robot manipulator consists of two sections:
 Body-and-arm – for positioning of objects in the robot's work
volume
 Wrist assembly – for orientation of objects
Types of Robot joints
 Linear joint or Prismatic (Parallel) joint (L)
 Orthogonal joint (O)
 Rotational joint (R)
 Twisting joint (T)
 Revolving joint (V)
 Types of Robot Joints
Linear or Prismatic or Parallel Joint (L)
 The relative movement between the input link and the output
link is a linear sliding motion, with the axes of the two links
being parallel.
 Types of Robot Joints
Orthogonal Joint (O)
 This is also linear sliding motion, but the input and output links
are perpendicular to each other during the move.
 Types of Robot Joints
Rotational Joint (R)
 This type provides a rotational relative motion of the joints,
with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the
input and output links.
 Types of Robot Joints
Twisting Joint (T)
 This joint also involves a rotary motion, but the axis of
rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.
 Types of Robot Joints
Revolving Joint (V)
 In this types, the axis of the input link is parallel to the axis
of rotation of the joint, and the axis of the output link is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
 Joint Notation Scheme
This joint‑link numbering, scheme is shown below.
 Joint Notation Scheme
Uses the joint symbols (L, O, R, T, V) to designate joint types
used to construct robot manipulator
Separates body-and-arm assembly from wrist assembly using a
colon (:)

Example: TLR : TR

Common body-and-arm configurations …

 Example
Sketch following manipulator configurations
(a) TRT:R, (b) TVR:TR, (c) RR:T.

Solution:
R
R
T T R
R T
R
R V

T T

(a) TRT:R (b) TVR:TR (c) RR:T

 Robot Classification
 Arm Geometry: Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinate
Configuration; Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration; Polar
or Spherical Coordinate Configuration; Revolute or Jointed
Arm Robot Configuration; SCARA Type Configuration.
Degrees Of Freedom: Robot Arm; Robot Wrist.
Power Sources: Electrical; Pneumatic; Hydraulic; Any
Combination.
Type Of Motion: Slew Motion; Joint-interpolation;
Straight-line Interpolation; Circular Interpolation.
Path Control: Limited Sequence; Point-to-point;
Continuous Path; Controlled Path.
Intelligence Level: Low-technology (Non-servo); High-
technology (Servo).
 Robot Classification
Normally, robot manipulators are classified according to their
arm geometry or kinematic structure.
The majority of these manipulators fall into one of these five
configuration:
 Cartesian or Rectangular Coordinate Configuration
 Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration
 Polar or Spherical Coordinate Configuration
 Revolute or Jointed Arm Robot Configuration
 SCARA Type Configuration
Robot Classification
Cartesian Coordinate Configuration
Notation LOO:
Consists of three sliding joints, two of which are orthogonal.
Other names include rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot.
Robot must be able to reach a point in space within three axes
by moving forward and backward, to the left and right, and up
and down.
Robot manipulator may be classified according to the type of
movement needed to complete the task.
Rectangular Coordinate has three linear axes of motion
 X represents left and right motion
 Y describes forward and backward motion
 Z is used to depict up-and-down motion
Rectangular or Cartesian-coordinated robot: (a) A rectangular coordinated arm moves in three linear
axes. (b) The box-shaped work envelope within which a rectangular manipulator operates. (c)
Overhead crane movements are similar to those of a rectangular-coordinated arm.
Cartesian Coordinate Configuration
The work envelope of a rectangular robot is a cube or
rectangle, so that any work performed by robot must only
involve motions inside the space.

Advantages:
 They can obtain large work envelope because raveling
along the x-axis, the volume region can be increased
easily.
 Their linear movement allows for simpler controls.
 They have high degree of mechanical rigidity, accuracy,
and repeatability due to their structure.
 They can carry heavy loads because the weight-lifting
capacity does not vary at different locations with in the
work envelope.
Cartesian Coordinate Configuration
Disadvantages:
 They makes maintenance more difficult for some models
with overhead drive mechanisms and control equipment.
 Access to the volume region by overhead crane or other
material-handling equipment may be impaired by the
robot-supporting structure.
 Their movement is limited to one direction at a time.

Applications:
 Pick-and-place operations.
 Adhesive applications (mostly long and straight).
 Assembly and subassembly (mostly straight).
 Automated loading CNC lathe and milling operations.
 Nuclear material handling and Welding.
Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration
Notation TLO:
Consists of a vertical column, relative to which an arm
assembly is moved up or down.
The arm can be moved in or out relative to the column.
Has two linear motions and one rotary motion.
Robots can achieve variable motion.
The first coordinate describe the angle theta of base rotation -
about the up-down axis.
The second coordinate correspond to a radical or y - in out
motion at whatever angle the robot is positioned.
The final coordinate again corresponds to the up-down z
position.
 Cylindrical-coordinated robot: (a) A cylindrical-coordinated arm rotates about its base, moves in &
out, and up & down. (b) The space between the two cylinders shown is the work envelope occupied by a
cylindrical-coordinated manipulator. (c) The movements of a construction crane on top of a tall
building are similar to those of a cylindrical-coordinated manipulator.
Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration
Rotational ability gives the advantage of moving rapidly to
the point in z plane of rotation.
Results in a larger work envelope than a rectangular robot
manipulator.
Suited for pick-and-place operations.

Applications:
 Assembly
 Coating applications.
 Conveyor pallet transfer
 Die casting.
 Foundry and forging applications, Inspection moulding.
 Investment casting, Machine loading and unloading.
Cylindrical Coordinate Configuration
Advantages:
 Their vertical structure conserves floor space.
 Deep horizontal reach is useful for far-reaching operations.
 Their capacity is capable of carrying large payloads.

Disadvantages:
 Their overall mechanical rigidity is lower than that of the
rectilinear robots because their rotary axis must overcome
inertia.
 Their repeatability and accuracy are also lower in the
direction of rotary motion.
 Their configuration requires a more sophisticated control
system than the rectangular robots.
Spherical Coordinate Configuration
Notation TRL:
Consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the
body, which can rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint)
and horizontal axis (R joint).
Has one linear motion and two rotary motions.
The work volume is like a section of sphere.
First motion corresponds to a base rotation about a vertical
axis, second motion corresponds to an elbow rotation and
third motion corresponds to a radial or in-out, translation.
A spherical-coordinated robots provides a larger work
envelope than the rectilinear or cylindrical robot.
Design gives weight lifting capabilities.
Advantages and disadvantages same as cylindrical-
coordinated design.
Spherical-or polar-coordinated robot: (a) A polar- or spherical-coordinated manipulator rotates about
its base and shoulder and moves linearly in and out. (b) The work envelope of a polar-coordinated
manipulator is the space between the two hemispheres. (c) A ladder on a hook-and-ladder truck has
movements similar to those of a polar-coordinated manipulator.
Spherical Coordinate Configuration
Applications:
 Die casting
 Dip coating
 Forging
 Glass handling
 Heat treating
 Injection molding
 Machine tool handling
 Material transfer
 Parts cleaning
 Press loading
 Stacking and unstacking
Jointed-Arm Robot Configuration
Notation TRR:
Best simulates a human arm.
Also called as an Anthropomorphic manipulator.
Consists of two straight links, corresponding to the
human “forearm” and “upper arm” with two rotary joins
corresponding to the “elbow” and “shoulder joints”.
Also called as Revolute Arm Robot Configuration.
Work volume of the configuration is spherical shaped.
 Jointed-Arm Robot Configuration

Consists of rotary motions actuated relative to the body, which

can rotate about both vertical axis (T joint) and horizontal axes
(R joints).
 SCARA Robot Configuration
Notation VRO
SCARA stands for Selective Compliance Assembly
Robot Actuator or Arm.
Characteristics of articulated and cylindrical
configurations are combined.
Main advantage is of high speed and high precision. In
the horizontal plane.
Provides high stiffness to the arm in the vertical
direction.
Provide high compliance (Acting according to certain
accepted standards)
 SCARA Robot Configuration

Similar to jointed-arm robot except that vertical axes are used

for shoulder and elbow joints to be compliant in horizontal
direction for vertical insertion tasks.
Robot Classification
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Robot Configurations
Configuration Advantages Disadvantages
Cartesian 3 linear axes, easy to visualize, rigid Can only reach front of itself,
coordinates structure, easy to program requires large floor space, axes
hard to seal
Cylindrical 2 linear axes +1 rotating, can reach Can’t reach above itself, base
coordinates all around itself, reach and height rotation axis as less rigid, linear
axes rigid, rotational axis easy to axes is hard to seal, won’t reach
seal around obstacles
SCARA 1 linear + 2 rotating axes, height 2 ways to reach point, difficult to
coordinates axis is rigid, large work area for program off-line, highly complex
floor space arm
Spherical 1 linear + 2 rotating axes, long Can’t reach around obstacles,
coordinates horizontal reach short vertical reach
Revolute 3 rotating axes can reach above or Difficult to program off-line, 2 or 4
coordinates below obstacles, largest work area ways to reach a point, most
for least floor space complex manipulator
 Degrees of Freedom
The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be
compared to the way in which the human body moves.
For each degree of freedom a joint is required. The degrees
of freedom located in the arm define the configuration.
Each of the five basic motion configurations discussed
previously utilizes three degrees of freedom in the arm.
Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end
effector all the flexibility.
A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a
robot’s hand at any point in its work space.
Although six degrees of freedom are needed for maximum
flexibility, most robot employee only three to five degrees
of freedom.
The more the degrees of freedom, the greater is the
complexity of motions encountered.
 Degrees of Freedom
The three degrees of freedom located in the arm of a robotic
system are:
 The rotational reverse: is the movement of the arm
assembly about a rotary axis, such as left-and-right swivel of
the robot’s arm about a base.
 The radial traverse: is the extension and retraction of the
arm or the in-and-out motion relative to the base.
 The vertical traverse: provides the up-and-down motion of
the arm of the robotic system.
The three degrees of freedom located in the wrist, which bear
the names of aeronautical terms, are
 Pitch or bend: is the up-and-down movement of the wrist.
 Yaw: is the right-and-left movement of the wrist.
 Roll or swivel: is the rotation of the hand.
Six major degrees of freedom of a robotic system
 Degrees of Freedom
Wrist Configuration
 Wrist assembly is attached to end-of-arm
 End effector is attached to wrist assembly
 Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector
Body-and-arm determines global position of end effector
 Two or three degrees of freedom:
 Roll
 Pitch
 Yaw
 Notation :RRT
 Power Sources
The three power sources used in current robots are:
Electric
 All robots use electricity as the primary source of energy.
 Electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraulic and
pneumatic pressure.
 It also powers the robot controller and all the electronic
components and peripheral devices.
 In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the
controller, are electrically powered.
 Because electric robot do not require a hydraulic power unit,
they conserve floor space and decrease factory noise.
 No energy conversion is required.
 Power Sources
 Pneumatic
 Generally found in relatively low-cost manipulators with low
load carrying capacity.
 Pneumatic drives have been used for many years for
powering simple stop-to-stop motions.
 It is inherently light weight, particularly when operating
pressures are moderate.
 Power Sources
 Hydraulic
 Either linear position actuators or a rotary vane configuration.
 Hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power for a
given actuator.
 The high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic actuator
an attractive choice for moving moderate to high loads at
reasonable speeds and moderate noise level.
 Hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way of
energy to achieve a better performance, but they are
expensive and generally less accurate.
 Types Of Motion
A robot manipulator can make four types of motion in
travelling from one point to another in the workplace:
 Slew motion : simplest type of motion. Robot is
commanded to travel from one point to another at default
speed.
 Joint-interpolated motion: requires the robot controller to
calculate the time it will take for each joint to reach its
destination at the commanded speed.
 Straight-line interpolation motion: requires the end of the
end effector to travel along a straight path determine in
rectangular coordinates.
• Useful in applications such as arc welding, inserting pins
into holes, or laying material along a straight path.
 Types Of Motion
 Circular interpolation motion: requires the robot controller
to define the points of a circle in the workplace based on a
minimum of three specified positions.
• Circular interpolation produces a linear approximation of
the circle and is more readily available using a
programming language rather than manual or teach
pendant techniques.
 Path Control
Commercially available industrial robots can be
classified into four categories according to the path
control system.
 Limited-sequence: do not use servo-control to indicate
relative positions of the joints.
• They are controlled by setting limit switches and/or
mechanical stops together with a sequencer to
coordinate and time the actuation of the joints.
• With this method of control, the individual joints can
only be moved to their extreme limits of travel.
 Point-to-point: these robots are most common and can
move from one specified point to another but cannot
stop at arbitrary points not previously designated.
 Path Control
 Controlled path: is a specialized control method that is a
part of general category of a point-to-point robot but with
more precise control.
• The controlled path robot ensures that the robot will
describe the right segment between two taught points.
• Controlled-path is a calculated method and is desired when
the manipulator must move in the perfect path motion.
 Continuous path: is an extension of the point-to-point
method. This involves the utilization of more points and its
path can be arc, a circle, or a straight line.
• Because of the large number of points, the robot is capable
of producing smooth movements that give the appearance
of continuous or contour movement.
 Intelligence Level
The intelligent control robot is capable of performing some of
the functions and tasks carried out by human beings.
It can detect changes in the work environment by means of
sensory perception.
Intelligent robot is equipped with a variety of sensors and
sensor apparatus providing visual (computer vision) and tactile
(touching) capabilities to respond instantly to variable
situations.
Much like humans, the robot observes and evaluates the
immediate environment by perception and pattern recognition.
 Intelligence Level
Because its operation is so complex, powerful computers are
required to control its movements and more- sophisticated
sensing devices to respond to its actions.
Extensive research has been and still concerned with how to
equip robots with seeing “eyes” and tactile “fingers”.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) that will enable the robots to
respond, adapt, reason, and make decisions to react to
change is also an inherent capability of the intelligent robot.
Robot Actuators and Drive Systems
Actuator is a device in robots that converts energy or
power into motion.
Robot joints are actuated driven systems.
The commonly used actuators are:
 Stepper motors
 DC servomotors
 AC servomotors
 Hydraulic pistons
 Pneumatic pistons
 Electric Drive System
Small and medium size robots are usually powered by
electric drives via gear trains using Servomotors and
Nonservo motors (stepper motors).
All industrial robots are either Servo or Nonservo
controlled.
Servo robots are controlled through the use of sensors that
continually monitor the robot's axes and associated
components for position and velocity. This feedback is
compared to pretaught information which has been
programmed and stored in the robot's memory.
Nonservo robots do not have the feedback capability, and
their axes are controlled through a system of mechanical
stops and limit switches.
 Electric Drive System
Advantages
 Better accuracy & repeatability
 Require less floor space
 More towards precise work such as assembly
applications

Disadvantages
 Generally not as speedy and powerful as hydraulic
robots
 Expensive for large and powerful robots, can become
fire hazard
 Hydraulic Drive System
Larger robots make use of hydraulic drives.

Advantages:
 More strength‑to‑weight ratio
 Can also actuate at a higher speed

Disadvantages:
 Requires more floor space
 Tendency to oil leakage.

Applications:
 Used on very big machines
 Pneumatic Drive System
For smaller robots that possess fewer degrees of freedom
(two‑ to four joint motions).
They are limited to pick‑and‑place tasks with fast cycles.

Applications
 Small robots
 Often pick and place with simple control
 Use often by peripheral equipment
 Direct Drive Robots
 In 1981 a "direct‑ drive robot" was developed at
Carnegle‑Mellon University, USA. Is used electric motors
located at the manipulator joints without the usual
mechanical transmission linkages used on most robots.
 The drive motor is located contiguous to the joint.
 A direct drive robot which includes a pedestal having two
motors which rotate around a common axis to directly drive
rotation of first and of second linking arms which are
rotating in a plane perpendicular to this pedestal.
 Direct Drive Robots
 The first, inner link is preferably driven through a column
directly driven by a first motor rotor, the column supporting
the inner end of the link.
 The second, outer link is driven by the second coaxial direct
drive motor through a simple, highly-tensioned belt and
pulley arrangement.

 Benefits
 Eliminate backlash and mechanical deficiencies
 Eliminate the need of a power transmission (thus more
efficient)
 Joint back drivable (allowing for joint‑space force
sensing)
 Advantages of Robots
Robots can work in hazardous environments
Robots need no environmental comfort
Robots work continuously without any humanity needs &
illnesses
Robots have repeatable precision at all times
Robots can be much more accurate than humans, they may
have mili or micro inch accuracy
Robots & their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of
humans
Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks
simultaneously, humans can only one.
 Disadvantages of Robots
Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can
cause:
 Inappropriate and wrong responses
 A lack of decision-making power
 A loss of power
 Damage to the robot and other devices
 Human injuries
 Disadvantages of Robots
Robots may have limited capabilities in
 Degrees of Freedom
 Skillful performance in using the hand
 Sensors
 Vision systems
 Real-time Response
Robots are costly, due to
 Initial cost of equipment
 Installation Costs
 Need for peripherals
 Need for training
 Need for Programming
 Sensors
• Sensors are any device that provide input of data to the
robot controller.
• Sensors collect all the information a robot needs to
operate and interact with its environment.
• The control of a manipulator or industrial robot is based
on the correct interpretation of sensory information.
• This information can be obtained either internally to the
robot (for example, joint positions and motor torque) or
externally using a wide range of sensors.
• A variety of sensors is available for inclusion in end
effectors.
• The most common sensors employed in end effectors
measure proximity, collision, and force.
 Classification of Sensors
Since the “action” capability is physically interacting
with the environment, two types of sensors have to be
used in any robotic system:
 “Proprioceptors” for the measurement of the robot’s
(internal) parameters;
 “Exteroceptors” for the measurement of its
environmental (external, from the robot point of view)
parameters.
 Proprioceptors
From a mechanical point of view a robot appears as an
articulated structure consisting of a series of links
interconnected by joints.
Each joint is driven by an actuator which can change the
relative position of the two links connected by that joint.
Proprioceptors are sensors measuring both kinematic
and dynamic parameters of the robot.
Based on these measurements the control system
activates the actuators to exert torques so that the
articulated mechanical structure performs the desired
motion.
 Exteroceptors
Exteroceptors are sensors that measure the positional or
force-type interaction of the robot with its environment.
Exteroceptors can be classified according to their range
as follows:
 Contact sensors
 Proximity (“near to”) sensors
 “far away” sensors
 Exteroceptors
Contact Sensors
 Contact sensors are used to detect the positive contact
between two mating parts and/or to measure the
interaction forces and torques which appear while the
robot manipulator conducts part mating operations.
 Another type of contact sensors are the tactile sensors
which measure a multitude of parameters of the
touched object surface.
Force/Torque Sensors
 The interaction forces and torques which appear,
during mechanical assembly operations, at the robot
hand level can be measured by sensors mounted on
the joints or on the manipulator wrist.
 Exteroceptors
Tactile Sensing
Tactile sensing is defined as the continuous sensing
of variable contact forces over an area within which
there is a spatial resolution.
Tactile sensing is more complex than touch sensing
which usually is a simple vectorial force/torque
measurement at a single point.
Tactile sensors mounted on the fingers of the hand
allow the robot to measure contact force profile and
slippage, or to grope and identify object shape.
 Exteroceptors
Proximity Sensors
 Proximity sensors detect objects which are near but
without touching them.
 These sensors are used for near-field (object
approaching or avoidance) robotic operations.
 Proximity sensors are classified according to their
operating principle:
 Inductive
 Hall effect
 Capacitive
 Ultrasonic and Optical
 Exteroceptors
 Inductive sensors are based on the change of
inductance due to the presence of metallic objects.
 Hall effect sensors are based on the relation which
exists between the voltage in a semiconductor
material and the magnetic field across that material.
 Inductive and Hall effect sensors detect only the
proximity of ferromagnetic objects.
 Capacitive sensors are potentially capable of
detecting the proximity of any type of solid or liquid
materials.
 Ultrasonic and optical sensors are based on the
modification of an emitted signal by objects that are
in their proximity.
 Exteroceptors
“Far Away” Sensors
 Two types of “far away” sensors are used in robotics:
Range sensors and Vision.
Range Sensing
 Range sensors measure the distance to objects in their
operation area. They are used for robot navigation,
obstacle avoidance or to recover the third dimension
for monocular vision.
Vision
 Robot vision is a complex sensing process. It involves
extracting, characterizing and interpreting information
from images in order to identify or describe objects in
environment.
General Classification
General Classification
 Sensors Used in Robot
Resistive sensors
 Bend sensors, potentiometer, resistive photocells, ...
Tactile sensors
 Contact switch, bumpers…
Infrared sensors
 Reflective, proximity, distance sensors…
Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
Inertial Sensors (measure the second derivatives of position)
 Accelerometer, Gyroscopes,
Orientation Sensors
 Compass, Inclinometer
Laser range sensors
Vision, GPS, …
 Gas Sensor
Accelerometer Gyro

Metal Detector
Pendulum Resistive
Tilt Sensors Piezo Bend Sensor
Gieger-Muller
Radiation Sensor

Pyroelectric Detector

UV Detector
Resistive Bend Sensors

CDS Cell
Resistive Light Sensor
Digital Infrared Ranging

Pressure Switch
Miniature Polaroid Sensor
Limit Switch Touch Switch
Mechanical Tilt Sensors

IR Pin IR Sensor w/lens

Diode
Thyristor
Magnetic Sensor

Polaroid Sensor Board

Hall Effect
Magnetic Reed Switch Magnetic Field
IR Reflection
IR Amplifier Sensor Sensors
Sensor
IRDA Transceiver

IR Modulator
Lite-On IR Radio Shack Solar Cell
Receiver
Remote Receiver Remote Receiver
Compass Compass
101 Piezo Ultrasonic Transducers
 Industrial Applications
Objectives
 Be familiar with automation in manufacturing.
 Understand Robot applications.
 Recognize material-handling applications
 Be familiar with processing operations
 Be informed of assembly and inspection operations
 Know how to evaluate the potential of a robot application
 Be aware of future applications
 Be aware of the challenge for the future
 Be informed of innovations
 Be familiar with case studies.
 Automation in Manufacturing
Goal: To integrate various operations to :
 Improve Productivity
 Increase product quality and Uniformity
 Minimize cycle times and effort
 Reduce labor cost
Computers allows us to integrate virtually all phases of
manufacturing operations.

Computer-integrated manufacturing(CIM): Is the

computerized integration of all aspects of design, planning,
manufacturing, distribution, and management.
 Automation in Manufacturing
Automation Technologies:
 Numerical Control(NC): Capability of flexibility of
operations, low cost, and ease of making different parts
with lower operator skill.
 Adaptive Control(AC): Continuously monitor the
operation and make necessary adjustments in process
parameters.

Flexible Manufacturing System(FMS): Integrate

manufacturing cells into a large unit, containing industrial
robots servicing several machines, all interfaced with a
central host computer.
 Automation in Manufacturing
Artificial Intelligence(AI): Involves the use of machines,
computers and industrial robots to replace human
intelligence.

Expert Systems(ES): Intelligent programs to perform tasks

and solve difficult real life problems.

Hence the applications of Robots in manufacturing are much

broader than most people realize.
 Robot Applications
Need to replace human labor by robots:
 Work environment hazardous for human beings
 Repetitive tasks
 Boring and unpleasant tasks
 Multi-shift operations
 Infrequent changeovers
 Performing at a steady pace
 Operating for long hours without rest
 Responding in automated operations
 Minimizing variation
 Industrial Robot Applications
• Material handling applications
 Material transfer – pick-and-place, palletizing
 Machine loading and/or unloading
• Processing operations
 Welding
 Spray coating
 Cutting and grinding
• Assembly operations and
• Inspection operations
 Industrial Applications
Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:
 Material-Handling Applications:
 Involve the movement of material or parts from one
location to another.
 It include part placement, palletizing and/or
depalletizing, machine loading and unloading.
 Processing Operations:
 Requires the robot to manipulate a special process tool as
the end effector.
 The application include spot welding, arc welding,
riveting, spray painting, machining, metal cutting,
deburring, polishing.
 Industrial Applications (contd.)
Assembly Applications:
Involve part-handling manipulations of a special tools
and other automatic tasks and operations.
Inspection Operations:
 Require the robot to position a workpart to an inspection
device.
 Involve the robot to manipulate a device or sensor to
perform the inspection.
 Material Handling Applications
The robot must have following features to facilitate
material handling:
 The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.
 The robot must have the reach needed.
 The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.
 The robot’s controller must have a large enough memory
to store all the programmed points so that the robot can
move from one location to another.
 The robot must have the speed necessary for meeting the
transfer cycle of the operation.
 Material Handling Applications
This category includes the following:
 Part Placement
 Palletizing and/or Depalletizing
 Machine Loading and/or Unloading
 Stacking and Insertion Operations
 Material Handling Applications
Part Placement:
 The basic operation in this category is the relatively
simple pick-and-place operation.
 This application needs a low-technology robot of the
cylindrical coordinate type.
 Only two, three, or four joints are required for most of
the applications.
 Pneumatically powered robots are often utilized.
 Material Handling Applications
Palletizing and/or Depalletizing
 The applications require robot to stack parts one on top
of the other, that is to palletize them, or to unstack parts
by removing from the top one by one, that is
depalletize them.
 Example: Process of taking parts from the assembly
line and stacking them on a pallet or vice versa.
Material Handling Applications
Machine Loading and/or Unloading:
 Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production
machine.
 There are three possible cases:
 Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into
a production machine, but the parts are unloaded by
some other means.
Example: A pressworking operation, where the
robot feeds sheet blanks into the press, but the
finished parts drop out of the press by gravity.
Material Handling Applications
 Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed
into the machine without robot assistance. The robot
unloads the part from the machine assisted by vision
or no vision.
Example: Bin picking, Die casting, and Plastic
moulding.
 Machine loading and unloading that involves both
loading and unloading of the workparts by the robot.
The robot loads a raw work part into the process ad
unloads a finished part.
Example: Machine operation
 Material Handling Applications
Stacking and Insertion Operation:
 In the Stacking process the robot places flat parts on
top of each other, where the vertical location of the
drop-off position is continuously changing with cycle
time.
 In the Insertion process robot inserts parts into the
compartments of a divided carton.
 Processing Operations
Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as
its end effector.
Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during
the cycle.
 Processing Operations
Industrial robot applications in the processing operations
include:
 Spot welding

 Continuous arc welding

 Spray painting

 Metal cutting and deburring operations

 Various machining operations like drilling, grinding,

laser and water jet cutting, and riveting.
 Rotating and spindle operations

 Adhesives and sealant dispensing

 Assembly Applications
The applications involve both material-handling and the
manipulation of a tool.
They typically include components to build the product
and to perform material handling operations.
Are traditionally labor-intensive activities in industry
and are highly repetitive and boring. Hence are logical
candidates for robotic applications.
 Assembly Applications
These are classified as:
 Batch Assembly: As many as one million products
might be assembled. The assembly operation has long
production runs.
 Low-Volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or
less products might be made.
The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.
One of the well suited area for robotics assembly is the
insertion of odd electronic components.
 Inspection Operations
Some inspection operation require parts to be
manipulated, and other applications require that an
inspection tool be manipulated.
Inspection work requires high precision and patience, and
human judgment is often needed to determine whether a
product is within quality specifications or not.
Inspection tasks that are performed by industrial robots
can usually be divided into the following three techniques:
 By involving the use of optics and light, usually a laser or
infrared source is used to illustrate the area of interest.
 Inspection Operations
 By using a feeler gauge or a linear displacement
transducer known as a linear variable differential
transformer(LVDT), the part being measured will come
in physical contact with the instrument or by means of air
pressure, which will cause it to ride above the surface
being measured.
 By utilizing robotic vision, matrix video cameras are
used to obtain an image of the area of interest, which is
digitized and compared to a similar image with specified
tolerance.
 Inspection Operations
The robot may be in active or passive role.
 In active role robot is responsible for determining
whether the part is good or bad.
 In the passive role the robot feeds a gauging station
with the part. While the gauging station is determining
whether the part meets the specification, the robot
waits for the process to finish.
 Material Handling Applications
• A robot is required to palletize • Robot Palletizer for the Sugar
soft packages onto a pallet.
and Flour Industry.
Material Handling Automotive - Welding

Automotive - Painting
 Non-Industry Applications
Biological Applications
The primary purpose for use of robotics in biology is to
achieve high throughput in experiments related to
research and development of life science.
Experiments involve the delivery and dispensation of
biological samples/solutions in large numbers each with
very small volumes.
Typical applications include high-throughput systems
for large-scale DNA sequencing, single nucleotide
polymorphism (SNP) analysis, haplotype mapping,
compound screening for drug development, and bio-
solution mixing and dispensing for membrane protein
crystallization.
 Non-Industry Applications
Without robots and automation, biosamples/solutions
must be handled manually by human hands, which is not
only tedious but also slow.
Various robotic systems have been developed in
laboratories that are either specially developed for a
particular application or integration of commercially
available robots, general purpose tools and sensors.
The second purpose of robotics for biological
applications is for effective handling and exploration of
molecular and cell biology.
This type of application includes immobilization of
individual cells, cell manipulation, and cell injection for
pronuclei DNA insertion.
 Non-Industry Applications
Special tools fabricated using different technologies
have to be developed such as lasers for microsensing and
manipulating, electroactive polymer for cell
manipulation, and microneedles for cell penetration.
Another interesting area of application is robotics-
inspired algorithms for molecular and cellular biology.
This includes the work for predicting protein folding,
and for structural biology (Zheng and Chen, 2004).
 Non-Industry Applications
Medical Applications
Research on robotics for medical applications started fifteen
years ago and is very active today.
The purpose is three-fold.
First it is for robotic surgery.
Robotic surgery can accomplish what doctors cannot because
of precision and repeatability of robotic systems.
Besides, robots are able to operate in a contained space inside
the human body.
All these make robots especially suitable for non-invasive or
minimally invasive surgery and for better outcomes of surgery.
 Non-Industry Applications
Today, robots have been demonstrated or routinely used for
heart, brain, spinal cord, throat, and knee surgeries at many
hospitals in the United States (International Journal of
Emerging Medical Technologies, 2005).
Since robotic surgery improves consistency and quality, it is
becoming more and more popular.
The second use of robotics in medicine is diagnosis.
Robotic diagnosis reduces invasiveness to the human body and
improves the accuracy and scope of the diagnosis.
One example is the robotic capsular endoscope that has been
developed for non-invasive diagnosis of gastrointestinal tract
by Polo Sant’Anna Valdera of the Sant’Anna School of
Advanced Studies in Italy.
 Non-Industry Applications
The third use of robotics is for providing artificial components
to recover physical functions of human beings such as robotic
prosthetic legs, arms and hands.
For example, at the Technical University of Berlin there is
work on powered leg orthoses using electromyographic signals
for control and on prosthetic hands.
The latter is basically an exo-skeleton for a non-functional
hand.
Prosthetic hands are also being developed at University of
Tsukuba in Japan.
In addition, rehabilitation robotics can help patients recover
physical functions more effectively after injury by replacing or
supplementing the work of physical therapists.
 Non-Industry Applications
Robotic devices and systems can also help elderly people
move around; this includes intelligent wheeled chairs, walking-
assistance machines, and limb-empowering robotic devices.
For example, a new type of powered walker was developed at
Waseda University. It is capable of sensing pressure from both
the left and right arms.
In addition, rehabilitation robotics can help patients recover
physical functions more effectively after injury.
Robotic devices and systems can also help elderly people
move around; this includes intelligent wheeled chairs, walking-
assistance machines, and limb-empowering robotic devices.
 Military Applications
Bomb disposal robots
Make a dangerous job a little less hazardous.
Designed to search for, locate and neutralise explosive devices.
 Military Applications
One of the main advantages
of robots is their ability to
operate in environments that
are hazardous or deadly to
humans.
American scientists
developed Pioneer in
response to the disaster at the
Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Station.
This robot was designed to
withstand large doses of
radiation and is capable of
clearing debris.
 Research Applications - Biology

Biologically inspired
("biomimetic“)
autonomous Underwater
robots based on the
lobster and the lamprey
(an eel-like jawless
vertebrate).
 Research Applications - Exploring
the Outer Space

• Canadarm - Canada's
most famous robot and
technological
achievement - made its
space debut on
November 13, 1981.
 Research Applications - Exploring
the Outer Space

• It was given to NASA as

Canada's contribution to
the Space Shuttle Program.
 Research Applications - Exploring
the Outer Space
• Officially known as the
Shuttle Remote
Manipulator System
(SRMS), Canadarm is an
analogue of the human arm,
with nerves of copper
wiring, bones of graphite
fibre and electric motors in
place of muscles. Like its
human counterpart, it has
various rotating joints, two at
the shoulder, one at the
elbow and three at the wrist..
 Research Applications - Exploring
the Outer Space
• The arm is controlled by its brain, a sophisticated computer. It
has been designed such that it can work both manually with
astronauts using hand controls to operate it, or automatically. Its
hand is a wire-snare device designed to fit over a special prong
or grapple fixture attached to a satellite.
 Research Applications – Exploring
Other Planets
• Mars Pathfinder was originally designed as a technology
demonstration of a way to deliver an instrumented lander and
a freeranging robotic rover to the surface of the red planet.
• Pathfinder not only accomplished this goal but also returned
an unprecedented amount of data and outlived its primary
design life.
• Mars Pathfinder used an innovative method of directly
entering the Martian atmosphere, assisted by a parachute to
slow its descent through the thin Martian atmosphere and a
giant system of airbags to cushion the impact.
Research Applications – Exploring
Other Planets
Research Applications – Exploring
Other Planets
Research Applications – Exploring
Other Planets
 Weird Robots
K9, a robot dog, was
the long term assistant
of Dr WHO (played at
the time by Tom
Baker) - one of the
most popular of his
travelling companions.
Although he looked
rather harmless, K9 did
come equipped with a
weapon that came out
of his 'nose'.
 Weird Robots
Robocow: This bizarre
looking robot was built
in 1996 as a device for
training a cowboy's
horse. It has been
programmed to mimic
the movements of a
cow. The idea was to
have a device that could
prepare the horse for
meeting the real thing.
 Weird Robots
The Roboroo robot was
developed by Holden, a
car-making firm in
Australia. Engineers
wanted to design better
protective bars for their
cars and this plastic and
metal test dummy was
ideal to assess the
effects of collisions with
suicidal kangaroos. The
first Roboroo was built
in 1994.
 Toys
Robodog is the world's most powerful, advanced and largest
commercial legged robot. It has a wide range of 'senses' to
interact with. These allow it to balance, position itself, see and
hear. Robodog can think and act for itself as it overcomes
obstacles and navigates around any room.
This amazing machine uses voice
recognition to understand and act on
up to 60 verbal instructions, not to
mention reading out your emails.
When away on holiday you can take
control of Robodog by logging into
the robot via the net, manoeuvre it
around your home seeing through its
two way camera eyes, and hearing
through its ears.
Evaluating the Potential of a Robot
Evaluation of the potential of the robot depends on:
Analysis of the Application
 Long- and short-term objectives
 Manufacturing and processes involved
 Space availability
 Budget
 System objectives
Feasibility Study
 How more automated system will affect related operations
 Material-handling methods
 Commercial equipment available
 CAD cell simulation
Evaluating the Potential of a Robot
• System Proposal
 Functional specifications
 System operation
 Robot type
 Tooling
 Peripheral equipment
• System Design
 Microprocessor control
 Software
 Multiple levels of control
Evaluating the Potential of a Robot
Construction Phase
 It is a good procedure for the system to be set up and
thoroughly tested at the supplier’s facility.
 This will minimize the interruption of current production
procedures.
Installation Phase
 It is a good practice for the supplier to supervise the step-
by-step installation of the system.
Training and Documentation
 Hands on robot training should be provided by the supplier
for all the persons who will interface with the new
automated system.
 The supplier should provide the design drawings and
documentation for system control, operation, and
maintenance.
 Future Applications
The keys areas to be explored for robot applications in future
are:
Medical Applications
 Routine examinations
 Surgical procedures
Underwater Applications
 Involve prospecting for minerals on the floor of the
ocean.
 Salvaging of sunken vessels, repair the ship either at sea
or in dry dock.
 Mobile firefighters to be used by Air force and Navy.
Surveillance and Guard Duty
 In military
 Power generating plants, oil refineries and other civilian
facilities that are potential targets of terrorist groups.
 Summary
In summary, some future foreseen applications are listed as
follows:
 Aerospace
 Agriculture
 Construction
 Health
 Nuclear
 Textile
 Lab automation
 Underwater surveying
 Surveillance and guard duty
 Navigation systems
 Firefighting