PRINCIPLES OF IMAGING

Prepared By: Leonila P. Felizarte, RRT

CONTRAST
 Differences in adjacent densities on the
radiograph
 Primary function is to make the detail visible
 High contrast: few gray tones, mainly black
and white
 Low contrast: many gray tones on image;
may also be referred to as long-scale
contrast
Factors Controlling and Influencing
Contrast
 kVp
 Directly controls contrast
 Controls differentials absorption of the x-ray
beam energy
Grids
 Reduce the amount of scatter reaching the film
 Less scatter fog results in fewer gray tones, which
increase contrast
Beam restriction
 Limits area being irradiated
 Filtration
 As filtration is increased, beam becomes harder
(average photon striking the patient has shorter
wavelength)
 Contrast decreases as filtration increases

 Anatomy and pathology

 Also known as subject contrast
 Control contrast with variations in the following:
RECORDED DETAIL
 Sharpness with which anatomic structures
are displayed
 B. May be described as the geometric
representation of part being radiographed
 C. May also be referred to as detail
sharpness, definition or image resolution
Factors Controlling and Influencing
Recorded Detail
Object-image distance (OID)
 Distance from the anatomic part being imaged to
the image receptor (usually film)

Source-image distance (SID)

 Distance from the source of radiation (usually
anode in the x-ray tube) to the image receptor
(usually film)

Focal spot size

 Use small focal spot whenever possible
 Film-screen combination
 Use of slower speed film-screen system
results in increased sharpness of recorded
detail

Motion
 Any motion results in image blur and
subsequent loss of recorded detail
 Motion may be caused by the following:
DISTORTION
 Any misrepresentation of an anatomic
structure on an image receptor that alters
its size and/ or shape

 Two types of distortion: size and shape

Factors Controlling Distortion
 Size
 Magnification
 Caused by excessive OID
 Caused by insufficient SID
 Causes anatomic structure to appear larger on film than in
reality
 Shape
 Elongation
 Causes anatomic structure to appear longer than in reality
 Foreshortening
 Causes anatomic structure to appear shorter than reality
RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
 Base
Made of polyester
Approximately 0.008 inches thick
Blue dye added
 Emulsion
 Double emulsion film (also called duplitized film):
coated on both sides of base
 Single emulsion film: coated on one side of base
 Consists of silver halide crystals suspended in
gelatin
Film Characteristics
 Speed ( sensitivity )
 Determined by the size and/or number of the silver halide
crystals and the thickness of the emulsion
 Contrast
 Determined by the size of the silver halide crystals and the
Thickness of the emulsion
 Latitude
 Determined by the inherent contrast of the film
 Exposure latitude
 Wider exposure latitude at higher kVp levels
Sensitometry
P & D curves
Also called sensitometric curves, characteristics
curves, and D log E curves
Curve always assurance some form of S or
sigmoid shape
Toe
Portion of curve representing low exposure and density;
base plus fog

Body
a. Also called straight line portion, gamma, or slope
b. Portion of curve from 0.25 to 2.5 density
 Shoulder
Portion of curve from 2.5 to maximum density
(also called D-max)
Measures unusable densities on the radiograph
(blackest portion)
 Use of H & D curves
May be used to determine the characteristics
of a certain film
May be used to compare the characteristics of several films

 Film characteristics as plotted on H & D curves

Speed (sensitivity): the closer the curve to the
y-axis the faster the film
FILM STORAGE
 Storage
 Temperature no greater than 68º to 70° F
 Humidity from 40% to 60%
 Handling
 Pressure marks
 Static
 Crinkle or half-moon marks
 Bending film over fingernail during handling
 Other rough handling
INTENSIFYING SCREENS
 Base or backing
 Made of polyester
 Reflective layer
 Between base and active layer
 Reflects light from crystals toward film,
increasing the speed of the system
 Active layer
 Also called the phosphor layer
 Adheres to the base
 Protective layer
 Thin coating placed on top of active layer to
provide protection from scratching or other
damage
 Screen speed (sensitivity)
 Primarily controlled by the following:
 Film-screen combination summary (speed
primarily controlled by screens; contrast
primarily controlled by Kvp)
GRIDS
 Use
 Reduces the amount of scatter radiation
reaching the film
 Construction
 Lead strips separated by aluminum interspaces
 Grid ratio
 Grid frequency
 Grid types
 Linear
 Focused grids
 Crossed grids
 Grid characteristics
 Contrast improvement factor
 Measure of grid’s ability to enhance contrast
 Grid selectivity
 Expressed as the ratio of primary radiation transmitted
through the grid to secondary radiation transmitted
through the grid
 Grid conversion factor
 Also called Bucky factor
 Amount of exposure increase necessary to compensate
for the absorption of image-forming rays and scatter in
the cleanup Grid motion
 Stationary grids
 Do not move during the exposure
 Moving grids
 Reciprocate (move back and forth) during exposure
 Grid errors: focused grids
 Upside down
 Off-level
 Lateral decentering
 Air gap technique
 Uses increased OID
 Increased OID allows scatter (which travels in widely
divergent paths) to exit the patient and miss the film
 Example: lateral cervical spine
 Radiographic quality and grids
 Produce higher contrast by absorbing Compton’s scatter
rays, which produce fog if they strike the film
 Decrease recorded detail if used in a Potter-Bucky
diaphragm because of increased OID
TECHNIQUE CHARTS
 Measurements
 Part thickness should always be measured using calipers
 Types of technique charts
1. Fixed kVp-variable mAs
 Assumes optimum kVp for the part being radiographed
2. Variable kVp
 kVp is varied according to part thickness as measured with
the calipers
 Based on the assumption that thicker parts require a beam
with shorter wavelength rays that are more penetrating
3. Variable technique
 Provides for alteration of routine techniques because of
pathology, patient age, ability to cooperate, casts, contrast
media