Elements of Ecology

3. Community

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 4. Community Ecology
 Ecological study of characteristics of community:
1. Species diversity
2. Composition and structure
3. Dominance
4. Trophic nature

It deals with:
 Methods of studying community
 Community dynamics i.e. Ecological succession

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 Community:
 Biotic community “OR”
 Biocoenosis “OR”
 Ecological community.

“Group of co-existing and interacting populations

in a given space and time”

 Biological part of the ecosystem distinct from

abiotic part.

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Ecological community: An assemblage of populations of, at
least two, different species that interact directly and
indirectly within a defined geographic area

Features of community
Used and advocated by
that can be observed or
Braun-Blanquet (1932), Cain
measured directly.
(1932) and Nichols (1930)
 Quantitative: density,
Based on analytical
abundance, frequency,
characters.
cover area, basal area.
Describe makeup of
 Qualitative: phenology,
community e.g. presence,
physiognomy, life forms.
constance, fidelity.

Analytical characters Synthetic characters

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 Concept of Superorganism:
 At earlier times; community was called as “Super
organism”.
REASON:
 It was thought to behave as single entity.

 Species co-existence and sharing of resources .

 New concept of community is contrast to earlier:

REASON:
 Community is “collection” of species.

 Each species has its own identity.

 Difference in growth rate and survival strategies.

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 ECOTONE
 Each community has spatial limits or boundaries;
a. Very Sharp e.g. boundary between forest and lake.

b. Less sharp e.g. boundary between forest and

grassland.
 ECOTONE:

“Transitional area between two communities where

species of both adjacent communities are found”.

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 EDGE EFFECT
 Ecotonal communities are rich in species
diversity, because of edge effect; i.e.

“Contrasting environmental conditions at

boundaries or edges supporting high species
richness”.

 Example:
Land with fauna and flora between two forest
communities.

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 4.1 Characteristics of community
 Characteristics of community are:

1. Species diversity
2. Structure and composition
3. Dominance
4. Succession i.e. developmental history
5. Trophic nature

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 4.1.1 Species diversity
Number of different species in the community.
 Abundant
 Rare
 species diversity:
High : Natural communities
Low: Man made communities
 Components:
I. Species richness
II. Species evenness

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 a. Species richness

“ Different types of species and their numerical

strength”
 Ratio between different species (S) and total

number of species(N).
 Can be measured by Index of richness (R)
 By Margalef ; 1958

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 b. Species evenness

A measure which qualifies as to how even species

are in terms of their number.

 Refers to apportionment of each species.

 Can be measured by Evenness Index (E)
 By Hill ; 1973

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 1. Measurement of Species diversity
 Measured by diversity indices.
 Can be measured separately:
a. Species richness or
b. Species richness or
c. Species diversity( as a whole)

 Shannon-Weiner Index H´
 Simpson Index λ

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 1/1/21

1. Measurement of Species diversity

 Index of diversity or Shannon index H´.
 Given by Shannon-Weaver; 1963

 Shannon index H´ has direct relationship with

species diversity.

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 1. Measurement of Species diversity
 Index of dominance or Simpson’s index λ
 Given by Simpson; 1949

 λ has inverse relationship with species diversity

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 2. Stable community:

i. Two components for stable community:

ii. Resistance
iii. Resilience
Resistance:
The ability of community to avoid disturbance i.e. any
event that alters structure of community.
Resilience:
The ability of community to recover after facing a
disturbance or displacement i.e. shifting of
community to some other place.

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 2. Stable community:

 Controversy:
Whether greater complexity of community leads to
“stable” or “unstable” conditions?

I. Greater complexity in a community may leads to

instability.

II. Reason for stability of species rich community:

Any change in one or few species would be compensated
by other species.

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 2. Stable community:

 According to recent studies by Ecologists:

 Competition severe: Low diversity

Reason:
●Resources: Scarce ●Requirements: overlap
 Only best adapted species can survive.

 Competition weak: High diversity

Reason:
●Resources: Sufficient ●Requirements: do not overlap
 Coexistence of many species.

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4.1.2 Community composition and
structure
 Zonation:
Horizontal distribution and spatial arrangement of growth
forms and components of community.

OR

 Distribution of plants or animals into specific zones

according to certain parameters or environmental
factors, each characterized by its dominant species.

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1. Pond Community:

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(a). Zonation in a Lake due toLight availability

 Littoral zone:
• On sides of water body

• Shallow water zone

 Limnetic zone:

• Open free water surface

• Fully illuminated

Light compensation Point:

“Level of water upto which light penetrates”
 Profundal zone:

• Deep water zone

• Beyond Light compensation Point

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Organisms in lake zones, based on light availability

 Littoral zone:
Trapa, Typha, Sagittaria, Scirpus, Marsilea, Hydrilla and
rooted plants.
 Limnetic zone:
Autotrophs e.g. blue green algae, green algae, submerged
plants, neustons ( rest or swim on surface), (swim and
navigate) plankton (floating organisms):
a. Phytoplankton: (Greek; “drifting Plants”)
b. Zooplankton: (Greek; “drifting Animals”)
 Profundal zone:
Heterotrophs e.g. Non photosynthetic organisms.

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 (b). Zonation in a lake due to temperature
difference

“Common in temperate lakes:

In summer:
• Top water layers: warmer
• Lower water layers: colder
 Water circulates in warm layers
 Warm water does not mix with cool
water layers.
 Creates temperature gradient
Layers due to temp. difference:
1.Epilimnion
2.Thermocline
3. Hypolimnion

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Zonation based on temperature difference:

 Epilimnion:
Upper circulating warmer layers.
 Thermocline:
Zone differentiating the two layers of water based on
temperature difference.
 Hypolimnion:
Lower non-circulating layer

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 2. Land communities:
 Show poor vertical  Highly stratified i.e.
stratification forming distinct vertical
 It has only two layers: storey
 Five vertical stories viz:
I. Subterranean part
II. Herbaceous part I. Subterranean part
(deep in soil)
Subterranean part with
II. Forest floor
roots and rhizomes
III. Herbaceous vegetation
Herbaceous part of IV. Shrubs
grasses, herbs, weeds V. Trees

Grass land: Forest community:

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 4.1.3 Dominance
 In Community i.e.
“Heterogeneous assemblage of species”
 Not all species are equally important
 Few species have controlling influence based on:

●Number ●Size ●Productivity

 Ecological dominants: Groups of species;
a. Not taxonomically related
b. Influence energy flow
c. Affect environment of other species.

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Dominance:

Numerical dominance:
“Few plants have major influence over others by
virtue of greater number”.

In Land community:
Plants with numerical dominance:

 Protectand provide shelter other organisms

 Capable of influencing physical environments

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 4.1.4 Trophic nature
“Grouping of organisms based on feeding habits
or mode of nutrition”

 Trophic level: Feeding relationships among

individuals i.e. what they feed on and what feeds
on them
 Each community has its own trophic nature
 Trophic structure of a pond and forest has same

pattern except species composition.

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 a. TROPHIC NATURE OF A POND:

 Producers: Autotrophs.
 Consumers: Heterotrophs.

Primary, Secondary, tertiary consumers

 Decomposers: Decompose dead organic matter.
 Macrophytes: Rooted, free floating green plants.
 Phytoplankton: Drifting microscopic plants
 Zooplanktons: Drifting microscopic animals
 Animals: Invertebrates & Vertebrates
(fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals)

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 b. TROPHIC NATURE OF FOREST:

 Producers: Autotrophs:
• Trees (dominant species):
• Shrubs, herbs, grasses (Understorey):
TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST:
 Trees: Species of Quercus, Acer, Betula, Picea.
 Primary consumers: Ants, beetles, spiders, bugs

elephants, squirrels, rabbit, leafhoppers.

 Secondary consumers: Fox, birds, snakes, lizards
 Tertiary consumers: Lion and tigers etc.
 Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes.

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 4.1.5 Succession
 Orderly process of community development.
 Change in species composition of a given

community. This change is:

• Continuous
• Unidirectional
• Sequential
 Various stages during which specific set of species

occupy an area and replaced by next group of

species

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Succession

Kind of “community relay”, in which assemblages

of plants and animals replace earlier ones in
somewhat predictable sequence.
 Pioneer stage:

Succession is initiated by few invaders which

colonize a bare area for first time.
 Climax:

Final, mature, stable, long lasting, self

sustaining and dominant stage of succession.

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 4.2 Methods of studying community
1. Floristic: By simply studying various genera and
species.
2. Physiognomic: (Greek words: Physis; nature,
gnomon; to interpret or judge)
 Method to interpret the nature or morphology of
different genra of plants based on “Raunkiaer’s
life forms”.
3. Phyto-social: Social interactions of plants along
with their abundance, distribution are considered.

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Studying community; Phytosociology.

The special field of synecology, study of structure and

classification of plant community.

Phyto-social method: Best preferred method

 Data collection on vegetation in terms of:
1. Types of species present.
2. Individual number of each type in an area.

 When area is large, difficult to count plants. Divide area

into smaller units i.e. sampling units.

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Studying community; Phyto-social method :
 Sampling units:
Smaller units into which large area is divided.
 TYPES OF SAMPLING UNITS:
A. Area
B. Line
C. Point

Area and line: For definite size of sampling unit.

Point: For indefinite area e.g. thick forest.

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 1. Quadrat:

Sample plot or unit for a detailed analysis of

vegetation of definite area.
 Method of Clements (1898).

The shape of quadrat :

● Square (usually )
● Rectangular
● Circular

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Shapes of Quadrat:

 Square Quadrats: Usually used

● Forest community :
Quadrats of one-fifth acre: For maximum no. of trees.
● Grassland and low herbaceous community:
Quadrats of one square metre, or 50 cm x 50 cm size or
even 20 cm x 20 cm size.

 Rectangular quadrats: Sometimes, give best results.

 The ratio of breadth and length in rectangular plots is
generally 1: 2 or 1: 4 or 1: 8.

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Types of Quadrat:

 Depending on purpose of study:

1. List quadrat: Species present in an area are listed.
2. List count quadrat: Species are listed as well as
their number is counted.
3. Chart quadrat: When all details e.g. distribution
and number are recorded periodically using an
instrument pantograph.
4. Permanent quadrat: For experimental studies;
where vegetation is recorded for long time to find out
changes.

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Determination of Quadrat size:

“Species-area curve method is used”

 Sampling unit size is gradually increased.
 Number of types of species counted in each

sampling unit.
 Continue it until number of species become

constant for three onsecutive time.

 A graph is drawn:
 Area( x-axis).
 Number of species( Y-axis)

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Determining Quadrat size:

 Optimum size of Quadrat is determined:

 From graph curve so obtained; where number of

species become constant.

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 2.Transect:

“A cross-section of an area; Sampling unit is strip

of definite area ”.
 Depending on area:

i. Line : Sampling is done across a line

ii. Belt: Belt (area)of suitable size is selected for
sampling.

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 3. Point frame:

A scale like frame, supported by a pair of legs.

 The frame bears 10 equidistant holes having 60

cm long pointers or pins, inserted at 45◦ angle.

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Point frame method:
 Method was introduced by Levy and Maiden
(1933).
 Point frame is laid randomly in an area.
 Plants hit by pins are recorded and their

frequency determined.

 Sampling unit in areas where determination of

area is not possible with Quadrats e.g. Thick
forest Large grassland Low herbaceous
communities.

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Sources:
 Species Interactions and Competition
By: Jennifer M. Lang (University of Dayton) & M. Eric Benbow (University of
Dayton) 2013 Nature Education 
 Website:

http://www.biologydiscussion.com/plants/study-of-plants-
community-structure-with-diagram/6806

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