Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

(3rd ed.)

— Chapter 6 —

Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign &
Simon Fraser University
©2013 Han, Kamber & Pei. All rights reserved.
1
January 3, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 2
Chapter 6: Mining Frequent Patterns, Association and
Correlations: Basic Concepts and Methods

 Basic Concepts

 Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Which Patterns Are Interesting?—Pattern

Evaluation Methods

 Summary

3
 What Is Frequent Pattern Analysis?
 Frequent pattern: a pattern (a set of items, subsequences, substructures,
etc.) that occurs frequently in a data set
 First proposed by Agrawal, Imielinski, and Swami [AIS93] in the context of
frequent itemsets and association rule mining
 Motivation: Finding inherent regularities in data
 What products were often purchased together?— Beer and diapers?!
 What are the subsequent purchases after buying a PC?
 What kinds of DNA are sensitive to this new drug?
 Can we automatically classify web documents?
 Applications
 Basket data analysis, cross-marketing, catalog design, sale campaign
analysis, Web log (click stream) analysis, and DNA sequence analysis.

4
 Why Is Freq. Pattern Mining Important?
 Freq. pattern: An intrinsic and important property of
datasets
 Foundation for many essential data mining tasks
 Association, correlation, and causality analysis

 Sequential, structural (e.g., sub-graph) patterns

 Pattern analysis in spatiotemporal, multimedia, time-

series, and stream data

 Classification: discriminative, frequent pattern analysis

 Cluster analysis: frequent pattern-based clustering

 Data warehousing: iceberg cube and cube-gradient

 Semantic data compression: fascicles

 Broad applications

5
 Basic Concepts: Frequent Patterns

Tid Items bought  itemset: A set of one or more

10 Beer, Nuts, Diaper items
20 Beer, Coffee, Diaper  k-itemset X = {x1, …, xk}
30 Beer, Diaper, Eggs  (absolute) support, or, support
40 Nuts, Eggs, Milk count of X: Frequency or
50 Nuts, Coffee, Diaper, Eggs, Milk occurrence of an itemset X
Customer Customer
 (relative) support, s, is the
buys both buys diaper fraction of transactions that
contains X (i.e., the probability
that a transaction contains X)
 An itemset X is frequent if X’s
support is no less than a minsup
Customer
threshold
buys beer

6
 Basic Concepts: Association Rules
Tid Items bought  Find all the rules X  Y with
10 Beer, Nuts, Diaper
20 Beer, Coffee, Diaper
minimum support and confidence
30 Beer, Diaper, Eggs  support, s, probability that a
40 Nuts, Eggs, Milk transaction contains X  Y
50 Nuts, Coffee, Diaper, Eggs, Milk
 confidence, c, conditional
Customer
buys both
Customer probability that a transaction
buys
diaper
having X also contains Y
Let minsup = 50%, minconf = 50%
Freq. Pat.: Beer:3, Nuts:3, Diaper:4, Eggs:3,
Customer {Beer, Diaper}:3
buys beer  Association rules: (many more!)
 Beer  Diaper (60%, 100%)
 Diaper  Beer (60%, 75%)
7
 Closed Patterns and Max-Patterns
 A long pattern contains a combinatorial number of sub-
patterns, e.g., {a1, …, a100} contains (1001) + (1002) + … +
(110000) = 2100 – 1 = 1.27*1030 sub-patterns!
 Solution: Mine closed patterns and max-patterns instead
 An itemset X is closed if X is frequent and there exists no
super-pattern Y ‫ כ‬X, with the same support as X (proposed
by Pasquier, et al. @ ICDT’99)
 An itemset X is a max-pattern if X is frequent and there
exists no frequent super-pattern Y ‫ כ‬X (proposed by
Bayardo @ SIGMOD’98)
 Closed pattern is a lossless compression of freq. patterns
 Reducing the # of patterns and rules
8
 Closed Patterns and Max-Patterns
 Exercise: Suppose a DB contains only two transactions
 <a1, …, a100>, <a1, …, a50>
 Let min_sup = 1
 What is the set of closed itemset?
 {a1, …, a100}: 1
 {a1, …, a50}: 2
 What is the set of max-pattern?
 {a1, …, a100}: 1
 What is the set of all patterns?
 {a1}: 2, …, {a1, a2}: 2, …, {a1, a51}: 1, …, {a1, a2, …, a100}: 1
 A big number: 2100 - 1? Why?
9
Chapter 5: Mining Frequent Patterns, Association and
Correlations: Basic Concepts and Methods

 Basic Concepts

 Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Which Patterns Are Interesting?—Pattern

Evaluation Methods

 Summary

10
Scalable Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Apriori: A Candidate Generation-and-Test

Approach

 Improving the Efficiency of Apriori

 FPGrowth: A Frequent Pattern-Growth Approach

 ECLAT: Frequent Pattern Mining with Vertical

Data Format
11
 The Downward Closure Property and Scalable
Mining Methods
 The downward closure property of frequent patterns
 Any subset of a frequent itemset must be frequent

 If {beer, diaper, nuts} is frequent, so is {beer,

diaper}
 i.e., every transaction having {beer, diaper, nuts} also

contains {beer, diaper}

 Scalable mining methods: Three major approaches
 Apriori (Agrawal & Srikant@VLDB’94)

 Freq. pattern growth (FPgrowth—Han, Pei & Yin

@SIGMOD’00)
 Vertical data format approach (Charm—Zaki & Hsiao

@SDM’02)
12
Apriori: A Candidate Generation & Test Approach

 Apriori pruning principle: If there is any itemset which is

infrequent, its superset should not be generated/tested!
(Agrawal & Srikant @VLDB’94, Mannila, et al. @ KDD’ 94)
 Method:
 Initially, scan DB once to get frequent 1-itemset
 Generate length (k+1) candidate itemsets from length k
frequent itemsets
 Test the candidates against DB
 Terminate when no frequent or candidate set can be
generated
13
 The Apriori Algorithm—An Example
Supmin = 2 Itemset sup
Itemset sup
Database TDB {A} 2
L1 {A} 2
Tid Items C1 {B} 3
{B} 3
10 A, C, D {C} 3
1st scan {C} 3
20 B, C, E {D} 1
{E} 3
30 A, B, C, E {E} 3
40 B, E
C2 Itemset sup C2 Itemset
{A, B} 1
L2 Itemset sup
{A, C} 2
2nd scan {A, B}
{A, C} 2 {A, C}
{A, E} 1
{B, C} 2 {A, E}
{B, C} 2
{B, E} 3
{B, E} 3 {B, C}
{C, E} 2
{C, E} 2 {B, E}
{C, E}

C3 Itemset
3rd scan L3 Itemset sup
{B, C, E} {B, C, E} 2
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 The Apriori Algorithm (Pseudo-Code)
Ck: Candidate itemset of size k
Lk : frequent itemset of size k

L1 = {frequent items};
for (k = 1; Lk !=; k++) do begin
Ck+1 = candidates generated from Lk;
for each transaction t in database do
increment the count of all candidates in Ck+1 that are
contained in t
Lk+1 = candidates in Ck+1 with min_support
end
return k Lk;
15
 Implementation of Apriori
 How to generate candidates?
 Step 1: self-joining Lk
 Step 2: pruning
 Example of Candidate-generation
 L3={abc, abd, acd, ace, bcd}
 Self-joining: L3*L3
 abcd from abc and abd
 acde from acd and ace
 Pruning:
 acde is removed because ade is not in L3
 C4 = {abcd}
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 Candidate Generation: An SQL Implementation
 SQL Implementation of candidate generation
 Suppose the items in Lk-1 are listed in an order
 Step 1: self-joining Lk-1
insert into Ck
select p.item1, p.item2, …, p.itemk-1, q.itemk-1
from Lk-1 p, Lk-1 q
where p.item1=q.item1, …, p.itemk-2=q.itemk-2, p.itemk-1 < q.itemk-1
 Step 2: pruning
forall itemsets c in Ck do
forall (k-1)-subsets s of c do
if (s is not in Lk-1) then delete c from Ck
 Use object-relational extensions like UDFs, BLOBs, and Table functions for
efficient implementation [S. Sarawagi, S. Thomas, and R. Agrawal. Integrating
association rule mining with relational database systems: Alternatives and
implications. SIGMOD’98]

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 Scalable Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Apriori: A Candidate Generation-and-Test Approach

 Improving the Efficiency of Apriori

 FPGrowth: A Frequent Pattern-Growth Approach

 ECLAT: Frequent Pattern Mining with Vertical Data Format

 Mining Close Frequent Patterns and Maxpatterns

20
 Further Improvement of the Apriori Method

 Major computational challenges

 Multiple scans of transaction database
 Huge number of candidates
 Tedious workload of support counting for candidates
 Improving Apriori: general ideas
 Reduce passes of transaction database scans
 Shrink number of candidates
 Facilitate support counting of candidates

21
 Partition: Scan Database Only Twice
 Any itemset that is potentially frequent in DB must be
frequent in at least one of the partitions of DB
 Scan 1: partition database and find local frequent

patterns
 Scan 2: consolidate global frequent patterns

 A. Savasere, E. Omiecinski and S. Navathe, VLDB’95

DB1 + DB2 + + DBk = DB

sup1(i) < σDB1 sup2(i) < σDB2 supk(i) < σDBk sup(i) < σDB
 DHP: Reduce the Number of Candidates

 A k-itemset whose corresponding hashing bucket count is below the

threshold cannot be frequent
count itemsets
 Candidates: a, b, c, d, e 35 {ab, ad, ae}
 Hash entries 88 {bd, be, de}

{ab, ad, ae}


. .
. .
 {bd, be, de} . .
 …
102 {yz, qs, wt}
 Frequent 1-itemset: a, b, d, e Hash Table
 ab is not a candidate 2-itemset if the sum of count of {ab, ad, ae} is
below support threshold
 J. Park, M. Chen, and P. Yu. An effective hash-based algorithm for mining
association rules. SIGMOD’95
23
 Sampling for Frequent Patterns

 Select a sample of original database, mine frequent

patterns within sample using Apriori
 Scan database once to verify frequent itemsets found in
sample, only borders of closure of frequent patterns are
checked
 Example: check abcd instead of ab, ac, …, etc.
 Scan database again to find missed frequent patterns
 H. Toivonen. Sampling large databases for association
rules. In VLDB’96

24
 DIC: Reduce Number of Scans

ABCD
 Once both A and D are determined
frequent, the counting of AD begins
ABC ABD ACD BCD  Once all length-2 subsets of BCD are
determined frequent, the counting of BCD
begins
AB AC BC AD BD CD
Transactions
1-itemsets
A B C D
Apriori 2-itemsets
…
{}
Itemset lattice 1-itemsets
S. Brin R. Motwani, J. Ullman, 2-items
and S. Tsur. Dynamic itemset DIC 3-items
counting and implication rules for
market basket data. In
SIGMOD’97
25
 Scalable Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Apriori: A Candidate Generation-and-Test Approach

 Improving the Efficiency of Apriori

 FPGrowth: A Frequent Pattern-Growth Approach

 ECLAT: Frequent Pattern Mining with Vertical Data Format

 Mining Close Frequent Patterns and Maxpatterns

26
Pattern-Growth Approach: Mining Frequent Patterns
Without Candidate Generation
 Bottlenecks of the Apriori approach
 Breadth-first (i.e., level-wise) search
 Candidate generation and test
 Often generates a huge number of candidates
 The FPGrowth Approach (J. Han, J. Pei, and Y. Yin, SIGMOD’ 00)
 Depth-first search
 Avoid explicit candidate generation
 Major philosophy: Grow long patterns from short ones using local
frequent items only
 “abc” is a frequent pattern
 Get all transactions having “abc”, i.e., project DB on abc: DB|abc
 “d” is a local frequent item in DB|abc  abcd is a frequent pattern
27
 Construct FP-tree from a Transaction Database

TID Items bought (ordered) frequent items

100 {f, a, c, d, g, i, m, p} {f, c, a, m, p}
200 {a, b, c, f, l, m, o} {f, c, a, b, m}
300 {b, f, h, j, o, w} {f, b} min_support = 3
400 {b, c, k, s, p} {c, b, p}
500 {a, f, c, e, l, p, m, n} {f, c, a, m, p} {}
Header Table
1. Scan DB once, find
frequent 1-itemset (single Item frequency head f:4 c:1
item pattern) f 4
c 4 c:3 b:1 b:1
2. Sort frequent items in a 3
frequency descending b 3 a:3 p:1
order, f-list m 3
p 3
3. Scan DB again, construct m:2 b:1
FP-tree
F-list = f-c-a-b-m-p p:2 m:1
28
 Partition Patterns and Databases

 Frequent patterns can be partitioned into subsets

according to f-list
 F-list = f-c-a-b-m-p

 Patterns containing p

 Patterns having m but no p

 …

 Patterns having c but no a nor b, m, p

 Pattern f

 Completeness and non-redundency

29
 Find Patterns Having P From P-conditional Database

 Starting at the frequent item header table in the FP-tree

 Traverse the FP-tree by following the link of each frequent item p
 Accumulate all of transformed prefix paths of item p to form p’s
conditional pattern base

{}
Header Table
f:4 c:1 Conditional pattern bases
Item frequency head
f 4 item cond. pattern base
c 4 c:3 b:1 b:1
c f:3
a 3
b 3 a:3 p:1 a fc:3
m 3 b fca:1, f:1, c:1
p 3 m:2 b:1 m fca:2, fcab:1
p:2 m:1 p fcam:2, cb:1
30
 From Conditional Pattern-bases to Conditional FP-trees

 For each pattern-base

 Accumulate the count for each item in the base

 Construct the FP-tree for the frequent items of the

pattern base

m-conditional pattern base:

{} fca:2, fcab:1
Header Table
Item frequency head All frequent
f:4 c:1 patterns relate to m
f 4 {}
c 4 c:3 b:1 b:1 m,
a 3 
f:3  fm, cm, am,
b 3 a:3 p:1 fcm, fam, cam,
m 3 c:3 fcam
p 3 m:2 b:1
p:2 m:1 a:3
m-conditional FP-tree
31
 Recursion: Mining Each Conditional FP-tree
{}

{} Cond. pattern base of “am”: (fc:3) f:3

c:3
f:3
am-conditional FP-tree
c:3 {}
Cond. pattern base of “cm”: (f:3)
a:3 f:3
m-conditional FP-tree
cm-conditional FP-tree

{}
Cond. pattern base of “cam”: (f:3) f:3
cam-conditional FP-tree

32
 A Special Case: Single Prefix Path in FP-tree

 Suppose a (conditional) FP-tree T has a shared single

prefix-path P
 Mining can be decomposed into two parts
{}  Reduction of the single prefix path into one node
a1:n1  Concatenation of the mining results of the two parts
a2:n2

a3:n3
{} r1

b1:m1 C1:k1 a1:n1

 r1 =
a2:n2
+ b1:m1 C1:k1

C2:k2 C3:k3
a3:n3 C2:k2 C3:k3
33
 Benefits of the FP-tree Structure

 Completeness
 Preserve complete information for frequent pattern
mining
 Never break a long pattern of any transaction
 Compactness
 Reduce irrelevant info—infrequent items are gone
 Items in frequency descending order: the more
frequently occurring, the more likely to be shared
 Never be larger than the original database (not count
node-links and the count field)

34
 The Frequent Pattern Growth Mining Method
 Idea: Frequent pattern growth
 Recursively grow frequent patterns by pattern and

database partition
 Method
 For each frequent item, construct its conditional

pattern-base, and then its conditional FP-tree

 Repeat the process on each newly created conditional

FP-tree
 Until the resulting FP-tree is empty, or it contains only

one path—single path will generate all the

combinations of its sub-paths, each of which is a
frequent pattern

35
 Scaling FP-growth by Database Projection
 What about if FP-tree cannot fit in memory?
 DB projection
 First partition a database into a set of projected DBs
 Then construct and mine FP-tree for each projected DB
 Parallel projection vs. partition projection techniques
 Parallel projection
 Project the DB in parallel for each frequent item
 Parallel projection is space costly
 All the partitions can be processed in parallel
 Partition projection
 Partition the DB based on the ordered frequent items
 Passing the unprocessed parts to the subsequent partitions

36
 Partition-Based Projection

 Parallel projection needs a lot Tran. DB

of disk space fcamp
fcabm
 Partition projection saves it fb
cbp
fcamp

p-proj DB m-proj DB b-proj DB a-proj DB c-proj DB f-proj DB

fcam fcab f fc f …
cb fca cb … …
fcam fca …

am-proj DB cm-proj DB
fc f …
fc f
fc f
37
FP-Growth vs. Apriori: Scalability With the Support
Threshold

100 Data set T25I20D10K

90 D1 FP-grow th runtime
D1 Apriori runtime
80
Ru n tim e (se c.)

70

60
50

40

30
20

10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Support threshold(%)

38
 FP-Growth vs. Tree-Projection: Scalability with the
Support Threshold

Data set T25I20D100K

140
D2 FP-growth
120 D2 TreeProjection

100
Runtime (sec.)

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Support threshold (%)
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39
 Advantages of the Pattern Growth Approach

 Divide-and-conquer:
 Decompose both the mining task and DB according to the
frequent patterns obtained so far
 Lead to focused search of smaller databases
 Other factors
 No candidate generation, no candidate test
 Compressed database: FP-tree structure
 No repeated scan of entire database
 Basic ops: counting local freq items and building sub FP-tree, no
pattern search and matching
 A good open-source implementation and refinement of FPGrowth
 FPGrowth+ (Grahne and J. Zhu, FIMI'03)
40
 Further Improvements of Mining Methods

 AFOPT (Liu, et al. @ KDD’03)

 A “push-right” method for mining condensed frequent pattern
(CFP) tree
 Carpenter (Pan, et al. @ KDD’03)
 Mine data sets with small rows but numerous columns
 Construct a row-enumeration tree for efficient mining
 FPgrowth+ (Grahne and Zhu, FIMI’03)
 Efficiently Using Prefix-Trees in Mining Frequent Itemsets, Proc.
ICDM'03 Int. Workshop on Frequent Itemset Mining
Implementations (FIMI'03), Melbourne, FL, Nov. 2003
 TD-Close (Liu, et al, SDM’06)

41
Extension of Pattern Growth Mining Methodology

 Mining closed frequent itemsets and max-patterns

 CLOSET (DMKD’00), FPclose, and FPMax (Grahne & Zhu, Fimi’03)

 Mining sequential patterns

 PrefixSpan (ICDE’01), CloSpan (SDM’03), BIDE (ICDE’04)

 Mining graph patterns

 gSpan (ICDM’02), CloseGraph (KDD’03)

 Constraint-based mining of frequent patterns

 Convertible constraints (ICDE’01), gPrune (PAKDD’03)

 Computing iceberg data cubes with complex measures

 H-tree, H-cubing, and Star-cubing (SIGMOD’01, VLDB’03)

 Pattern-growth-based Clustering
 MaPle (Pei, et al., ICDM’03)

 Pattern-Growth-Based Classification
 Mining frequent and discriminative patterns (Cheng, et al, ICDE’07)

42
 Scalable Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Apriori: A Candidate Generation-and-Test Approach

 Improving the Efficiency of Apriori

 FPGrowth: A Frequent Pattern-Growth Approach

 ECLAT: Frequent Pattern Mining with Vertical Data Format

 Mining Close Frequent Patterns and Maxpatterns

43
ECLAT: Mining by Exploring Vertical Data Format
 Vertical format: t(AB) = {T11, T25, …}
 tid-list: list of trans.-ids containing an itemset
 Deriving frequent patterns based on vertical intersections
 t(X) = t(Y): X and Y always happen together
 t(X)  t(Y): transaction having X always has Y
 Using diffset to accelerate mining
 Only keep track of differences of tids
 t(X) = {T1, T2, T3}, t(XY) = {T1, T3}
 Diffset (XY, X) = {T2}
 Eclat (Zaki et al. @KDD’97)
 Mining Closed patterns using vertical format: CHARM (Zaki &
Hsiao@SDM’02)
44
 Scalable Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Apriori: A Candidate Generation-and-Test Approach

 Improving the Efficiency of Apriori

 FPGrowth: A Frequent Pattern-Growth Approach

 ECLAT: Frequent Pattern Mining with Vertical Data Format

 Mining Close Frequent Patterns and Maxpatterns

45
 Mining Frequent Closed Patterns: CLOSET
 Flist: list of all frequent items in support ascending order
 Flist: d-a-f-e-c Min_sup=2
TID Items
 Divide search space 10 a, c, d, e, f
20 a, b, e
 Patterns having d
30 c, e, f
 Patterns having d but no a, etc. 40 a, c, d, f
50 c, e, f
 Find frequent closed pattern recursively
 Every transaction having d also has cfa  cfad is a
frequent closed pattern
 J. Pei, J. Han & R. Mao. “CLOSET: An Efficient Algorithm for
Mining Frequent Closed Itemsets", DMKD'00.
 CLOSET+: Mining Closed Itemsets by Pattern-Growth

 Itemset merging: if Y appears in every occurrence of X, then Y

is merged with X
 Sub-itemset pruning: if Y ‫ כ‬X, and sup(X) = sup(Y), X and all of
X’s descendants in the set enumeration tree can be pruned
 Hybrid tree projection
 Bottom-up physical tree-projection
 Top-down pseudo tree-projection
 Item skipping: if a local frequent item has the same support in
several header tables at different levels, one can prune it from
the header table at higher levels
 Efficient subset checking
 MaxMiner: Mining Max-Patterns
Tid Items
 1st scan: find frequent items
10 A, B, C, D, E
 A, B, C, D, E 20 B, C, D, E,
 2nd scan: find support for 30 A, C, D, F

 AB, AC, AD, AE, ABCDE

 BC, BD, BE, BCDE Potential
 CD, CE, CDE, DE max-patterns
 Since BCDE is a max-pattern, no need to check BCD, BDE,
CDE in later scan
 R. Bayardo. Efficiently mining long patterns from
databases. SIGMOD’98
CHARM: Mining by Exploring Vertical Data Format
 Vertical format: t(AB) = {T11, T25, …}
 tid-list: list of trans.-ids containing an itemset
 Deriving closed patterns based on vertical intersections
 t(X) = t(Y): X and Y always happen together
 t(X)  t(Y): transaction having X always has Y
 Using diffset to accelerate mining
 Only keep track of differences of tids
 t(X) = {T1, T2, T3}, t(XY) = {T1, T3}
 Diffset (XY, X) = {T2}
 Eclat/MaxEclat (Zaki et al. @KDD’97), VIPER(P. Shenoy et
al.@SIGMOD’00), CHARM (Zaki & Hsiao@SDM’02)
Visualization of Association Rules: Plane Graph

50
Visualization of Association Rules: Rule Graph

51
Visualization of Association Rules
(SGI/MineSet 3.0)

52
Computational Complexity of Frequent Itemset Mining

 How many itemsets are potentially to be generated in the worst case?

 The number of frequent itemsets to be generated is senstive to the
minsup threshold
 When minsup is low, there exist potentially an exponential number of
frequent itemsets
 The worst case: MN where M: # distinct items, and N: max length of
transactions
 The worst case complexty vs. the expected probability
 Ex. Suppose Walmart has 104 kinds of products
 The chance to pick up one product 10-4
 The chance to pick up a particular set of 10 products: ~10-40
 What is the chance this particular set of 10 products to be frequent
103 times in 109 transactions?

53
Chapter 5: Mining Frequent Patterns, Association and
Correlations: Basic Concepts and Methods

 Basic Concepts

 Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Which Patterns Are Interesting?—Pattern

Evaluation Methods

 Summary

54
 Interestingness Measure: Correlations (Lift)
 play basketball  eat cereal [40%, 66.7%] is misleading
 The overall % of students eating cereal is 75% > 66.7%.
 play basketball  not eat cereal [20%, 33.3%] is more accurate,
although with lower support and confidence
 Measure of dependent/correlated events: lift

P( A B ) Basketball Not basketball Sum (row)

lift  Cereal 2000 1750 3750
P ( A) P( B)
Not cereal 1000 250 1250
2000 / 5000
lift ( B, C )   0.89 Sum(col.) 3000 2000 5000
3000 / 5000 * 3750 / 5000
1000 / 5000
lift ( B, C )   1.33
3000 / 5000 *1250 / 5000

55
 Are lift and 2 Good Measures of Correlation?

 “Buy walnuts  buy

milk [1%, 80%]” is
misleading if 85% of
customers buy milk
 Support and confidence
are not good to indicate
correlations
 Over 20 interestingness
measures have been
proposed (see Tan,
Kumar, Sritastava
@KDD’02)
 Which are good ones?

56
Null-Invariant Measures

57
 Comparison of Interestingness Measures
 Null-(transaction) invariance is crucial for correlation analysis
 Lift and 2 are not null-invariant
 5 null-invariant measures

Milk No Milk Sum (row)

Coffee m, c ~m, c c
No Coffee m, ~c ~m, ~c ~c
Sum(col.) m ~m 

Null-transactions w.r.t. m Kulczynski

and c measure (1927) Null-invariant

Subtle: They disagree

January 3, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 58
 Analysis of DBLP Coauthor Relationships
Recent DB conferences, removing balanced associations, low sup, etc.

Advisor-advisee relation: Kulc: high,

coherence: low, cosine: middle

 Tianyi Wu, Yuguo Chen and Jiawei Han, “

Association Mining in Large Databases: A Re-Examination of Its Measur
es
”, Proc. 2007 Int. Conf. Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery
in Databases (PKDD'07), Sept. 2007
59
 Which Null-Invariant Measure Is Better?
 IR (Imbalance Ratio): measure the imbalance of two itemsets
A and B in rule implications

 Kulczynski and Imbalance Ratio (IR) together present a clear

picture for all the three datasets D4 through D6
 D4 is balanced & neutral
 D5 is imbalanced & neutral
 D6 is very imbalanced & neutral
Chapter 5: Mining Frequent Patterns, Association and
Correlations: Basic Concepts and Methods

 Basic Concepts

 Frequent Itemset Mining Methods

 Which Patterns Are Interesting?—Pattern

Evaluation Methods

 Summary

61
 Summary

 Basic concepts: association rules, support-

confident framework, closed and max-patterns
 Scalable frequent pattern mining methods
 Apriori (Candidate generation & test)
 Projection-based (FPgrowth, CLOSET+, ...)
 Vertical format approach (ECLAT, CHARM, ...)
 Which patterns are interesting?
 Pattern evaluation methods

62
January 3, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 63
 Ref: Basic Concepts of Frequent Pattern Mining

 (Association Rules) R. Agrawal, T. Imielinski, and A. Swami. Mining

association rules between sets of items in large databases.
SIGMOD'93.
 (Max-pattern) R. J. Bayardo. Efficiently mining long patterns from
databases. SIGMOD'98.
 (Closed-pattern) N. Pasquier, Y. Bastide, R. Taouil, and L. Lakhal.
Discovering frequent closed itemsets for association rules. ICDT'99.
 (Sequential pattern) R. Agrawal and R. Srikant. Mining sequential
patterns. ICDE'95

64
 Ref: Apriori and Its Improvements
 R. Agrawal and R. Srikant. Fast algorithms for mining association rules.
VLDB'94.
 H. Mannila, H. Toivonen, and A. I. Verkamo. Efficient algorithms for
discovering association rules. KDD'94.
 A. Savasere, E. Omiecinski, and S. Navathe. An efficient algorithm for
mining association rules in large databases. VLDB'95.
 J. S. Park, M. S. Chen, and P. S. Yu. An effective hash-based algorithm for
mining association rules. SIGMOD'95.
 H. Toivonen. Sampling large databases for association rules. VLDB'96.
 S. Brin, R. Motwani, J. D. Ullman, and S. Tsur. Dynamic itemset counting
and implication rules for market basket analysis. SIGMOD'97.
 S. Sarawagi, S. Thomas, and R. Agrawal. Integrating association rule
mining with relational database systems: Alternatives and implications.
SIGMOD'98.
65
 Ref: Depth-First, Projection-Based FP Mining
 R. Agarwal, C. Aggarwal, and V. V. V. Prasad. A tree projection algorithm for
generation of frequent itemsets. J. Parallel and Distributed Computing:02.
 J. Han, J. Pei, and Y. Yin. Mining frequent patterns without candidate generation .
SIGMOD’ 00.
 J. Liu, Y. Pan, K. Wang, and J. Han. Mining Frequent Item Sets by Opportunistic
Projection. KDD'02.
 J. Han, J. Wang, Y. Lu, and P. Tzvetkov. Mining Top-K Frequent Closed Patterns
without Minimum Support. ICDM'02.
 J. Wang, J. Han, and J. Pei. CLOSET+: Searching for the Best Strategies for
Mining Frequent Closed Itemsets. KDD'03.
 G. Liu, H. Lu, W. Lou, J. X. Yu. On Computing, Storing and Querying Frequent
Patterns. KDD'03.
 G. Grahne and J. Zhu, Efficiently Using Prefix-Trees in Mining Frequent Itemsets,
Proc. ICDM'03 Int. Workshop on Frequent Itemset Mining Implementations
(FIMI'03), Melbourne, FL, Nov. 2003
66
 Ref: Vertical Format and Row Enumeration Methods

 M. J. Zaki, S. Parthasarathy, M. Ogihara, and W. Li. Parallel algorithm

for discovery of association rules. DAMI:97.
 Zaki and Hsiao. CHARM: An Efficient Algorithm for Closed Itemset
Mining, SDM'02.
 C. Bucila, J. Gehrke, D. Kifer, and W. White. DualMiner: A Dual-
Pruning Algorithm for Itemsets with Constraints. KDD’02.
 F. Pan, G. Cong, A. K. H. Tung, J. Yang, and M. Zaki , CARPENTER:
Finding Closed Patterns in Long Biological Datasets. KDD'03.
 H. Liu, J. Han, D. Xin, and Z. Shao, Mining Interesting Patterns from
Very High Dimensional Data: A Top-Down Row Enumeration
Approach, SDM'06.
67
 Ref: Mining Correlations and Interesting Rules

 M. Klemettinen, H. Mannila, P. Ronkainen, H. Toivonen, and A. I.

Verkamo. Finding interesting rules from large sets of discovered
association rules. CIKM'94.
 S. Brin, R. Motwani, and C. Silverstein. Beyond market basket:
Generalizing association rules to correlations. SIGMOD'97.
 C. Silverstein, S. Brin, R. Motwani, and J. Ullman. Scalable
techniques for mining causal structures. VLDB'98.
 P.-N. Tan, V. Kumar, and J. Srivastava. Selecting the Right
Interestingness Measure for Association Patterns. KDD'02.
 E. Omiecinski. Alternative Interest Measures for Mining
Associations. TKDE’03.
 T. Wu, Y. Chen and J. Han, “Association Mining in Large Databases:
A Re-Examination of Its Measures”, PKDD'07
68
 Ref: Freq. Pattern Mining Applications

 Y. Huhtala, J. Kärkkäinen, P. Porkka, H. Toivonen. Efficient

Discovery of Functional and Approximate Dependencies Using
Partitions. ICDE’98.
 H. V. Jagadish, J. Madar, and R. Ng. Semantic Compression and
Pattern Extraction with Fascicles. VLDB'99.
 T. Dasu, T. Johnson, S. Muthukrishnan, and V. Shkapenyuk.
Mining Database Structure; or How to Build a Data Quality
Browser. SIGMOD'02.
 K. Wang, S. Zhou, J. Han. Profit Mining: From Patterns to Actions.
EDBT’02.

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