1

UNIT I SITE INVESTIGATION AND

SELECTION OF FOUNDATION

PREPARED BY:
KARTHIK V
 UNIT I -SITE INVESTIGATION
AND SELECTION OF
2
FOUNDATION
 Scope and objectives
 Methods of exploration-auguring and boring – Water boring and
rotatory drilling
 Depth of boring – Spacing of bore hole
 Sampling – Representative and undisturbed sampling –
sampling techniques – Split spoon sampler, Thin tube sampler,
Stationary piston sampler
 Bore log report
 Penetration tests (SPT and SCPT) – Data interpretation
(Strength parameters and Liquefaction potential)
 Selection of foundation based on soil condition.
 SCOPE - SITE INVESTIGATION
3

 The process of determining the layers of natural soil

deposits that will underlie a proposed structure and their
physical properties is generally referred to as site
investigation or Soil Exploration .
 The purpose of the exploration program is to determine,
within practical limits, the stratification and engineering
properties of the soils underlying the site. The principal
properties of interest will be the strength, deformation, and
hydraulic characteristics. The program should be planned
so that the maximum amount of information can be
obtained at minimum cost.
 NEED - SITE INVESTIGATION
4

 Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable for a

given structure.
 Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
 Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
 Determination of potential foundation problems (for example,
expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
 Establishment of ground water table.
 Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like retaining
walls, sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
 Establishment of construction methods for changing subsoil
conditions.
 OBJECTIVES-SITE INVESTIGATION
5

Planning of a program for soil exploration.

 Collection of disturbed and undisturbed soil or rock samples from the holes
drilled in the field. The number and depths of holes depend upon the project.
 Conducting all the necessary in-situ tests for obtaining the strength and
compressibility characteristics of the soil or rock directly or indirectly.
 Study of ground-water conditions and collection of water samples for
chemical analysis.
 Geophysical exploration, if required.
 Conducting all the necessary tests on the samples of soil /rock and water
collected.
 Preparation of drawings, charts, etc.
 Analysis of the data collected.
 Preparation of report.
 Steps of subsurface exploration program [Stage 1]
6

1. Assembly of all available information on

dimensions, column spacing, type and use of the
structure, basement requirements, and any special
architectural considerations of the proposed
building. Foundation regulations in the local
building code should be consulted for any special
requirements. For bridges the soil engineer should
have access to type and span lengths as well as pier
loadings. This information will indicate any
settlement limitations, and can be used to estimate
foundation loads.
 Steps of subsurface exploration program [Stage 2]
7

2.Reconnaissance of the area:

This may be in the form of a field trip to the site
which can reveal information on the type and
behavior of adjacent structures such as cracks,
noticeable sags, and possibly sticking doors and
windows. The type of local existing structure may
influence, to a considerable extent, the exploration
program and the best foundation type for the
proposed adjacent structure.
 Steps of subsurface exploration program [Stage 3]
8

3.A preliminary site investigation:

In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is
opened to establish in a general manner the stratification,
types of soil to be expected, and possibly the location of
the groundwater table. One or more borings should be
taken to rock, or competent strata, if the initial borings
indicate the upper soil is loose or highly compressible.
This amount of exploration is usually the extent of the
site investigation for small structures.
 Steps of subsurface exploration program [Stage 4]
9

4.A detailed site investigation:

Where the preliminary site investigation has
established the feasibility of the project, a more
detailed exploration program is undertaken. The
preliminary borings and data are used as a basis for
locating additional borings, which should be
confirmatory in nature, and determining the
additional samples required.
 Soil Investigation

Semi Indirect
SAMPLING
SAMPLING
Direct Indirect
Boring

Auger Auger and Shell Wash Percussion Rotary

Open pit (test pit,

trial pit)

Sounding Insitu vane shear Pressure meter Geophysical

Plate load test

SPT SCPT DCPT Electrical resistivity Seismic method

 Methods of exploration
11

 Auguring and boring

 Water boring
 Rotatory drilling
 Percussion Drilling
 Core Boring
 Augur Method
12

 Auger boring is the simplest

of the methods. Hand
operated or power driven
augers may be used.
 Two types of hand operated
augers are in use as shown
 Augur Method
13

Auger boring Power drills

 Augur Method
14

 The depths of the holes are normally limited to a maximum of

10 m by this method.
 These augers are generally suitable for all types of soil above
the water table but suitable only in clayey soil below the
water table (except for the limitations given below).
 A string of drill rods is used for advancing the boring. The
diameters of the holes normally vary from 10 to 20 cm. Hand
operated augers are not suitable in very stiff to hard clay nor
in granular soils below the water table.
 Hand augering is not practicable in dense sand nor in sand
mixed with gravel even if the strata lies above the water table.
 POWER DRIVEN AUGERS
15
 POWER DRIVEN AUGERS
16

 Power driven augers are the most popular method of soil exploration for
boring holes. The flights act as a screw conveyor to bring the soil to the
surface.
 This method may be used in all types of soil including sandy soils below the
water table but is not suitable if the soil is mixed with gravel, cobbles etc.
 The central stem of the auger flight may be hollow or solid. A hollow stem is
sometimes preferred since standard penetration tests or sampling may be
done through the stem without lifting the auger from its position in the hole.
 Besides, the flight of augers serves the purpose of casing the hole. The
hollow stem can be plugged while advancing the bore and the plug can be
removed while taking samples or conducting standard penetration tests.
 The drilling rig can be mounted on a truck or a tractor. Holes may be drilled
by this method rapidly to depths of 60 m or more.
 WATER BORING
17
 WATER BORING
18

 Wash boring is commonly used for boring holes.

 Soil exploration below the ground water table is usually very difficult
to perform by means of pits or auger-holes. Wash boring in such cases
is a very convenient method provided the soil is either sand, silt or
clay. The method is not suitable if the soil is mixed with gravel or
boulders.
 Above figure shows the assembly for a wash boring. To start with, the
hole is advanced a short depth by auger and then a casing pipe is
pushed to prevent the sides from caving in. The hole is then continued
by the use of a chopping bit fixed at the end of a string of hollow drill
rods.
 WATER BORING
19

 A stream of water under pressure is forced through the rod and the bit
into the hole, which loosens the soil as the water flows up around the
pipe. The loosened soil in suspension in water is discharged into a tub.
The soil in suspension settles down in the tub and the clean water
flows into a sump which is reused or circulation.
 The motive power for a wash boring is either mechanical or man
power. The bit which is hollow is screwed to a string of hollow drill
rods supported on a tripod by a rope or steel cable passing over a
pulley and operated by a winch fixed on one of the legs of the tripod.
 ROTARY DRILLING
20
 ROTARY DRILLING
21

 In the rotary drilling method a cutter bit or a core barrel with a coring bit attached to
the end of a string of drill rods is rotated by a power rig. The rotation of the cutting
bit shears or chips the material penetrated and the material is washed out of the hole
by a stream of water just as in the case of a wash boring. Rotary drilling is used
primarily for penetrating the overburden between the levels of which samples are
required. Coring bits, on the other hand, cut an annular hole around an intact core
which enters the barrel and is retrieved. Thus the core barrel is used primarily in
rocky strata to get rock samples. As the rods with the attached bit or barrel are
rotated, a downward pressure is applied to the drill string to obtain penetration, and
drilling fluid under pressure is introduced into the bottom of the hole through the
hollow drill rods and the passages in the bit or barrel. The drilling fluid serves the
dual function of cooling the bit as it enters the hole and removing the cuttings from
the bottom of the hole as it returns to the surface in the annular space between the
drill rods and the walls of the hole. In an uncased hole, the drilling fluid also serves
to support the walls of the hole. When boring in soil, the drilling bit is removed and
replaced by a sampler when sampling is required, but in rocky strata the coring bit is
used to obtain continuous rock samples.
 DEPTH OF BORING
22

 The depth up to which bore holes should be driven

is governed by the depth of soil affected by the
foundation bearing pressures.
 The standard practice is to take the borings to a
depth at which the excess vertical stress caused by
a fully loaded foundation is of the order of 20% or
less of the net imposed vertical stress at the
foundation base level.
 DEPTH OF BORING
23

 The depth the borehole as

per this practice works out
to about 1.5 times the
least width of the
foundation from the base
level of the foundation.
 DEPTH OF BORING
24

 Where strip or pad footings are closely spaced which results in the
overlapping of the stressed zones, the whole loaded area becomes in
effect a raft foundation with correspondingly deep borings.
 DEPTH OF BORING
25

 In the case of pile or pier

foundations the subsoil
should be explored to the
depths required to cover
the soil lying even below
the tips of piles (or pile
groups) and piers which
are affected by the loads
transmitted to the deeper
layers.
 Depth of Bore Hole
26

 In case of multistory building, the depth of exploration can be taken from

the following formula
D  C ( S ) 0.7

 Where,
 D = depth of exploration (m),
 C = constant, equal to 3 for light steel buildings and narrow concrete buildings, it is
equal to 6 for heavy steel buildings and wide concrete buildings.
 S = number of storeys.
 SPACING OF BORE HOLE
27

 The spacing of bore hole depends mainly on the variation of the strata in the
horizontal direction. The exploration should be extensive so as to reveal major
changes in the properties of the sub-surface strata.
 For small or less important building, even one bore hole or a trial pit in the centre
may be sufficient. But for compact buildings, covering an area of about 0.4 hectares,
there should be at least 5 bore holes, one at the centre and for near the corners
 For large, multi storeyed buildings, the bore holes should be drilled at all the corners
and also at important locations. The spacing between the bore holes is generally
kept between 10 to 30 m, depending upon the variation in the subsurface conditions
and loading
 For highways, subsurface explorations are usually carried out along the proposed
centre line or along the propose ditch line. The spacing of bore holes usually varies
between 150 – 300 m . If the substrata is erratic, the spacing may be reduced to even
30m.
 In case of concrete dams the spacing of bore holes generally varies between 40-
80m.
 SAMPLING IN SOIL
28

 Soils met in nature are heterogeneous in character with a mixture

of sand, silt and clay in different proportions.
 In water deposits, there are distinct layers of sand, silt and clay of
varying thicknesses and alternating with depth.
 A satisfactory design of a foundation depends upon the accuracy
with which the various soil parameters required for the design are
obtained.
 The accuracy of the soil parameters depends upon the accuracy
with which representative soil samples are obtained from the field.
 Sampler
29

 Split spoon sampler

 Thin tube sampler
 Stationary piston sampler
 Thin-Walled Soil Sampler
30

 The most common type of soil sampler used is the thin-walled sampling tube
consisting of stainless steel or brass tubing. In order to slice through the soil,
the tube has a sharp and drawn-in cutting edge. In terms of dimensions, typical
diameters are from 2 to 3 in. (5 to 7.6 cm) and lengths vary from 2 to 3 ft (0.6
to 0.9 m). The sampler head contains a ball check valve and vents for escape of
air and water during the sampling process.
 The drill rig equipment can be used to either hammer, jack, or push the sampler
into the soil. The preferred method is to slowly push the sampler into the soil by
using hydraulic jacks or the weight of the drilling equipment. Thin-walled soil
samplers are used to obtain undisturbed soil samples.
 Thick-Walled Soil Sampler
31

 Thin-walled samplers may not be strong enough to sample gravelly soils,

very hard soils, or cemented soils. In such cases, a thick-walled soil
sampler will be required. Such samplers are often driven into place by
using a drop hammer.
 A common type of sampler is the split-spoon type sampler that contains
removable internal rings, 1.0 in. (2.54 cm) in height.
 The split-spoon type sampler has a 3.0 in. (7.6 cm) outside diameter and a
2.50 in. (6.35 cm) inside diameter.
 This sturdy sampler, which is considered to be a thick-walled sampler, has
proven successful in sampling hard and desiccated soil and soft
sedimentary rock.
32
 Piston Sampler
33

 The thin-wall tube sampler is primarily used for sampling in soft to medium
stiff cohesive soils. The wall thickness has to be increased if sampling is to be
done in very stiff to hard strata. For best results it is better to push the sampler
statically into the strata. Samplers are driven into the strata where pushing is
not possible or practicable. The procedure of sampling involves attaching a
string of drill rods to the sampler tube adapter and lowering the sampler to rest
on the bottom of the bore hole which was cleaned of loose materials in
advance. The sampler is then pushed or driven into the soil. Over driving or
pushing should be avoided. After the sampler is pushed to the required depth,
the soil at the bottom of the sampler is sheared off by giving a twist to the drill
rod at the top. The sampling tube is taken out of the bore hole and the tube is
separated from the sampler head. The top and bottom of the sample are either
sealed with molten wax or capped to prevent evaporation of moisture. The
sampling tubes are suitably referenced for later identification.
 Piston Sampler
34

Piston Sampler (a) Sampler is set in drilled hole, (b) Sample tube
is pushed hydraulically into the soil, (c) Pressure is released through hole in piston rod.
 Soil Samples
35

 There are three types of soil samples that can be

recovered from borings:
 Altered Soil (also known as Nonrepresentative
Samples)
 Disturbed Samples (also known as Representative
Samples).
 Undisturbed Samples.
 Altered Soil
(also known as Nonrepresentative Samples)
36

 During the boring operations, soil can be altered

due to mixing or contamination. Such materials do
not represent the soil found at the bottom of the
borehole and hence should not be used for visual
classification or laboratory tests. Some examples of
altered soil are as follows:
 Altered Soil
(also known as Nonrepresentative Samples)
37

 Some examples of altered soil are as follows:

 Failure to clean the bottom of the boring: If the boring is not cleaned out prior
to sampling, a soil sample taken from the bottom of the borehole may actually
consist of cuttings from the side of the borehole. These borehole cuttings, which
have fallen to the bottom of the borehole, will not represent in situ conditions at
the depth sampled.
 Soil contamination: In other cases, the soil sample may become contaminated
with drilling fluid, which is used for wash-type borings. These samples are often
called wash samples or wet samples because they are washed out of the borehole
and allowed to settle in a sump at ground surface. These types of soil samples
that have been contaminated by the drilling process should not be used for
laboratory tests because they will lead to incorrect conclusions regarding
subsurface conditions.
 Altered Soil
(also known as Nonrepresentative Samples)
38

 Some examples of altered soil are as follows:

 Soil mixing. Soil or rock layers can become mixed during the drilling operation,
such as by the action of a flight auger. For example, suppose clay, which consists
of thin alternating layers of sand and clay, becomes mixed during the drilling and
sampling process. Obviously laboratory tests would produce different results
when performed on the mixed soil as compared to laboratory tests performed on
the individual sand and clay layers.
 Change in moisture content. Soil that has a change in moisture content due to
the drilling fluid or from heat generated during the drilling operations should also
be classified as altered soil.
 Altered Soil
(also known as Nonrepresentative Samples)
39

 Some examples of altered soil are as follows:

 Densified soil. Soil that has been densified by over-pushing or over-driving the
soil sampler should also be considered as altered because the process of over-
pushing or over-driving could squeeze water from the soil.
 In summary, any soil or rock where the mineral constituents have
been removed, exchanged, or mixed should be considered as altered
soil.
 Disturbed Samples
40
(also known as Representative Samples)
 It takes considerable experience and judgment to distinguish between altered
soil and disturbed soil. In general, disturbed soil is defined as soil that has not
been contaminated by material from other strata or by chemical changes, but
the soil structure is disturbed and the void ratio may be altered. In essence, the
soil has only been remolded during the sampling process. For example, soil
obtained from driven thick-walled samplers, such as the SPT spilt spoon
sampler, or chunks of intact soil brought to the surface in an auger bucket (i.e.,
bulk samples) are considered disturbed soil.
 Disturbed soil can be used for visual classification as well as numerous types
of laboratory tests. Example of laboratory tests that can be performed on
disturbed soil include water content, specific gravity, Atterberg limits, sieve
and hydrometer tests, expansion index test, chemical composition, and
laboratory compaction tests such as the Modified Proctor.
 Undisturbed Samples
41

 Undisturbed samples may be broadly defined as soil that has been subjected to
no disturbance or distortion and the soil is suitable for laboratory tests that
measure the shear strength, consolidation, permeability, and other physical
properties of the in situ material. As a practical matter, it should be recognized
that no soil sample can be taken from the ground and be in a perfectly
undisturbed state. But this terminology has been applied to those soil samples
taken by certain sampling methods. Undisturbed samples are often defined as
those samples obtained by slowly pushing thin-walled tubes, having sharp
cutting ends and tip relief, into the soil.
 Undisturbed soil samples are essential in many types of foundation engineering
analyses, such as the determination of allowable bearing pressure and
settlement. Many soil samples may appear to be undisturbed but they have
actually been subjected to considerable disturbance of the soil structure. It takes
considerable experience and judgment to evaluate laboratory test results on
undisturbed soil samples as compared to test results that may be inaccurate due
to sample disturbance.
 Sampler and Sample Ratios Used
42
to Evaluate Sample Disturbance
 For soil samplers, the two most important parameters to evaluate
disturbance potential are the inside clearance ratio and area ratio, defined
as follows:

Ds  De
Inside clearance ratio   100 (%)
De
2 2
Dw  De
Area ratio  2
 100 (%)
De
 where
 De = inner diameter at the sampler cutting tip
 Ds = inside diameter of the sampling tube
 Dw = outside diameter of the sampling tube
43
 Sampler and Sample Ratios Used
44
to Evaluate Sample Disturbance
 In general, a sampling tube for undisturbed soil specimens should have an
inside clearance ratio of about 1 percent and an area ratio of about 10 percent or
less. Having an inside clearance ratio of about 1 percent provides for tip relief
of the soil and reduces the friction between the soil and inside of the sampling
tube during the sampling process. A thin film of oil can be applied at the cutting
edge to also reduce the friction between the soil and metal tube during sampling
operations. The purpose of having a low area ratio and a sharp cutting end is to
slice into the soil with as little disruption and displacement of the soil as
possible. Thin tube samplers are manufactured to meet these specifications and
are considered to be undisturbed soil samplers.
 Sampler and Sample Ratios Used
45
to Evaluate Sample Disturbance
 Common ratios that can be used to assess the possibility of sample disturbance
of the actual soil specimen include the total recovery ratio, specific recovery
ratio, gross recovery ratio, net recovery ratio, and true recovery ratio.
 These disturbance parameters are based on the compression of the soil sample
due to the sampling operations. Because the length of the soil specimen is often
determined after the sampling tube is removed from the borehole, a commonly
used parameter is the gross recovery ratio, defined as:
Lg
Gross recovery ratio 
H
 where Lg is gross length of sample, which is the distance from the top of the
sample to the cutting edge of the sampler after removal of the sampler from the
boring (in. or cm). H is depth of penetration of the sampler, which is the
distance from the original bottom of the borehole to the cutting edge of the
sampler after it has been driven or pushed in place (in. or cm). The closer the
gross recovery ratio is to 1.0 (or 100 percent), the better the quality of the soil
 Area Ratio Problem
46

 The following dimensions are given for a shelby tube sampler:

 External diameter = 51 mm

 Internal diameter = 48 mm

 Determine the area ratio

 Area Ratio Problem
47

 75 mm is the external diameter of a sampling tube. If the area ratio

required is 20%, determine the thickness of the sampling tube. In what
type of clay would such a high area ratio be required?

 When samples are to be taken in very stiff to hard clay soils mixed with
stones, sampling tubes with high area ratios are required.
 Factors that Affect Sample Quality
48

 It is important to understand that using a thin wall tube, or obtaining a gross

recovery ratio of 100 percent would not guarantee an undisturbed soil specimen.
Many other factors can cause soil disturbance, such as:
 Pieces of hard gravel or shell fragments in the soil, which can cause voids to
develop along the sides of the sampling tube during the sampling process
 Soil adjustment caused by stress relief when making a borehole
 Disruption of the soil structure due to hammering or pushing the sampling tube into
the soil stratum
 Tensile and torsional stresses which are produced in separating the sample from the
subsoil
 Jarring or banging the sampling tube during transportation to the laboratory
 Roughly removing the soil from the sampling tube
 Crudely cutting the soil specimen to a specific size for a laboratory test
 Preparation of Boring Logs
49

 Name and address of the drilling company

 Driller’s name
 Job description and number
 Number, type, and location of boring
 Date of boring
 Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual observation of
the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler, and thin-walled
Shelby tube sampler
 Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud losses,
and so on
 Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
 Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
 In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run, the
actual length of coring, length of core recovery, and ROD
50
 FIELD STRENGTH TESTS
51

The following are the major field tests for

determining the soil strength:
1. Vane shear test (VST).
2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
3. The Pressure-meter Test (PMT).
4. The Borehole Shear Test (BST).
5. The Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT).
6. Cone Penetration Test (CPT).
7. The Plate Load Test (PLT).
 FIELD STRENGTH TESTS
52
 STANDARD PENETRATION
53
TEST (SPT)
 The SPT is the most commonly used in situ test in a bore hole. The test is
made by making use of a split spoon sampler. The method of carrying out
this test is as follows:
 The split spoon sampler is connected to a string of drill rods and is lowered into the
bottom of the bore hole which was drilled and cleaned in advance.
 The sampler is driven into the soil strata to a maximum depth of 456 mm by making
use of 63.5vkg weight falling freely from a height of 760vmm on to an anvil fixed
on the top of drill rod. The weight is guided to fall along a guide rod. The weight is
raised and allowed to fall by means of a manila rope, one end tied to the weight and
the other end passing over a pulley on to a hand operated winch or a motor driven
cathead.
 The number of blows required to penetrate each of the successive 152 mm depths is
counted to produce a total penetration of 456 mm.
 STANDARD PENETRATION
54
TEST (SPT)
 To avoid seating errors, the blows required for the first 152 mm of penetration are
not taken into account; those required to increase the penetration from 152 mm to
456 mm constitute the N-value.
 As per some codes of practice if the N-value exceeds 100, it is termed as refusal,
and the test is stopped even if the total penetration falls short of the last 304 mm
depth of penetration.
 Standardization of refusal at 100 blows allows all the drilling organizations to
standardize costs so that higher blows if required may be eliminated to prevent the
excessive wear and tear of the equipment.
 The SPT is conducted normally at 1 to 2m intervals. The intervals may be increased
at greater depths if necessary.
 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
55
(SPT)
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
56
 Standardization of SPT
57

 The validity of the SPT has been the subject of study and research by many authors
for the last many years. The basic conclusion is that the best results are difficult to
reproduce. Some of the important factors that affect reproducibility are
 Variation in the height of fall of the drop weight (hammer) during the test

 The number of turns of rope around the cathead, and the condition of the manila

rope
 Length and diameter of drill rod

 Diameter of bore hole

 Overburden pressure

 There are many more factors that hamper reproducibility of results. Normally
corrections used to be applied for a quick condition in the hole bottom due to rapid
withdrawal of the auger. Discrepancies in the input driving energy and its
dissipation around the sampler into the surrounding soil are the principal factors for
the wide range in N values.
58

 The theoretical input energy may be expressed as E in  Wh

 where ,W = weight or mass of the hammer

 h = height of fall

 Investigation has revealed that the actual energy transferred to the driving head and
then to the sampler ranged from about 30 to 80 percent. It has been suggested that
the SPT be standardized to some energy ratio Re keeping in mind the data collected
so far from the existing SPT. Terzaghi (1996) suggests that the observed SPT value
N be reduced to a standard blow count corresponding to 60 percent of standard
energy. The standard energy ratio may be expressed as
Actual hammer energy to sampler, E a
Re 
Input energy, E in
Corrections to the Observed SPT Value
59

 Three types of corrections are normally applied to

the observed N values. They are:
 Hammer efficiency correction
 Drillrod, sampler and borehole corrections
 Correction due to overburden pressure
 1. Hammer Efficiency Correction,
60
Eh
 Different types of hammers are in use for driving the drill rods. Two
types are normally used. They are
 Donut with two turns of manila rope on the cathead with a hammer

efficiency Eh = 0.45.
 Safety with two turns of manila rope on the cathead with a hammer
efficiency as follows:
 Rope-pulley or cathead = 0.7 to 0.8;
 Trip or automatic hammer = 0.8 to 1.0.
61
 2. Drill Rod, Sampler and Borehole
62
Corrections
 Correction factors are used for correcting the effects of
length of drill rods, use of split spoon sampler with or
without liner, and size of bore holes. The various
correction factors are
 2. Drill Rod, Sampler and Borehole
63
Corrections
 3. Correction Factor for Overburden
Pressure in Granular Soils, CN
64

1/ 2
 95.76 
CN   

 o '
 where, so' =effective overburden pressure in kN/m2
 There are a number of empirical relations proposed for CN. However, the most
commonly used relationship is the one given by .
N cor  C N NEhCd Cs Cb
 Ncor is related to the standard energy ratio used by the designer. N cor may be
expressed as N70 or N60 according to the designer's choice.
 In above equation CNN is the corrected value for overburden pressure only.
 The value of CN as per above equation is applicable for granular soils only,
whereas CN = 1 for cohesive soils for all depths.
 Correction for SPT-N Value as per
65
IS 2131-1981
 Correction due to Overburden Pressure:
 1905 
N'  0.77 N log 
  '0 
 Correction due to Dilatancy: Silty fine sands and fine sands below the water
table develop pore pressure which is not easily dissipated. The pore pressure
increases the resistance of the soil and hence the penetration number (N). The
correction for Dilatancy may be given as
1
N' '  15   N '15
2

 Note: If N’ < 15, N’’ = N’

 Problem
66

 The observed standard penetration test value in a deposit of fully submerged sand
was 45 at a depth of 6.5 m. The average effective unit weight of the soil is 9.69
kN/m3. The other data given are (a) hammer efficiency = 0.8, (b) drill rod length
correction factor = 0.9, and (c) borehole correction factor = 1.05. Determine the
corrected SPT value for standard energy (a) Res = 60%, and (b) Res = 70%,
 Problem
67
68

 In an infinite sand deposit, standard penetration test was done and the
following results were obtained.

Depth from ground level, m 2 4 5 8 10 12

N- Value 35 38 42 45 46 49

 The water table is at a depth of 2m below ground level. The specific

gravity of solids and void ratio of the sand are 2.7 and 0.7 respectively.
Assume the soil above the water table to be dry. If it is proposed to found
a continuous footing of width 2m at a depth of 2m below ground level,
find the design corrected N-Values.
 Nov dec 2006 – 16Marks
STATIC CONE PENETRATION TEST
(CRT)
69

 The static cone penetration test normally called the Dutch cone penetration test
(CPT). It has gained acceptance rapidly in many countries. The method was
introduced nearly 50 years ago. One of the greatest values of the CPT consists of its
function as a scale model pile test. Empirical correlations established over many
years permit the calculation of pile bearing capacity directly from the CPT results
without the use of conventional soil parameters.
 The CPT has proved valuable for soil profiling as the soil type can be identified
from the combined measurement of end resistance of cone and side friction on a
jacket. The test lends itself to the derivation of normal soil properties such as
density, friction angle and cohesion. Various theories have been developed for
foundation design.
STATIC CONE PENETRATION TEST
(CRT)
70

 The popularity of the CPT can be attributed to the following three important factors:
 General introduction of the electric penetrometer providing more precise
measurements, and improvements in the equipment allowing deeper penetration.
 2. The need for the penetrometer testing in-situ technique in offshore foundation
investigations in view of the difficulties in achieving adequate sample quality in
marine environment.
 3. The addition of other simultaneous measurements to the standard friction
penetrometer such as pore pressure and soil temperature.
 THE PENETROMETER
71
 THE PENETROMETER
72

 There are a variety of shapes and sizes of penetrometers being used. The one that
is standard in most countries is the cone with an apex angle of 60° and a base
area of 10 cm2. The sleeve (jacket) has become a standard item on the
penetrometer for most applications. On the 10 cm2 cone penetrometer the friction
sleeve should have an area of 150 cm2 as per standard practice. The ratio of side
friction and bearing resistance, the friction ratio, enables identification of the soil
type and provides useful information in particular when no bore hole data are
available. Even when borings are made, the friction ratio supplies a check on the
accuracy of the boring logs.
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
73
 Operation of Penetrometer
74

 The sequence of operation of the penetrometer is explained as follows:

 Position 1 The cone and friction jacket assembly in a collapsed position.
 Position 2 The cone is pushed down by the inner sounding rods to a depth a until a
collar engages the cone. The pressure gauge records the total force Qc to the cone.
Normally a = 40 mm.
 Position 3 The sounding rod is pushed further to a depth b. This pushes the friction
jacket and the cone assembly together; the force is Qt. Normally b = 40 mm.
 Position 4 The outside mantle tube is pushed down a distance a + b which brings
the cone assembly and the friction jacket to position 1.The total movement
=a+b=80 mm.
 The process of operation illustrated above is continued until the proposed depth is
reached. The cone is pushed at a standard rate of 20 mm per second. The mechanical
penetrometer has its advantage as it is simple to operate and the cost of maintenance
is low. The quality of the work depends on the skill of the operator. The depth of
CPT is measured by recording the length of the sounding rods that have been
pushed into the ground.
75
 CPT-The Electric Penetrometer
76

 The electric penetrometer is an improvement over the mechanical one. Mechanical

penetrometers operate incrementally whereas the electric penetrometer is advanced
continuously. The penetrometer has built in load cells that record separately the cone
bearing and side friction. Strain gauges are mostly used for the load cells. The load
cells have a normal capacity of 50 to 100 kN for end bearing and 7.5 to 15 kN for
side friction, depending on the soils to be penetrated. An electric cable inserted
through the push rods (mantle tube) connect the penetrometer with the recording
equipment at the surface which produces graphs of resistance versus depth.
 The electric penetrometer has many advantages. The repeatability of the cone test is
very good. A continuous record of the penetration results reflects better the nature of
the soil layers penetrated. However, electronic cone testing requires skilled
operators and better maintenance. The electric penetrometer is indispensable for
offshore soil investigation.
 Operation of Penetrometer
77

 The electric penetrometer is pushed continuously at a

standard rate of 20 mm per second. A continuous record
of the bearing resistance qc and frictional resistance fs
against depth is produced in the form of a graph at the
surface in the recording unit.
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
78
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
79
 Cone Resistance qc and
80
Local Side Friction fc
 Cone penetration resistance qc is obtained by dividing the total force Qc acting on
the cone by the base area Ac of the cone.
Qc
qc 
Ac
 In the same way, the local side friction fc is
Qf
fc 
Af

 where, Qf = Qt - Qc = force required to push the friction jacket,

 Qt = the total force required to push the cone and friction jacket together in the case
of a mechanical penetrometer,
 Af= surface area of the friction jacket.
 Friction Ratio, Rf
81

 Friction ratio, RAs expressed as

fc
Rf 
qc

 where fc and qc are measured at the same depth. Rf is expressed as a

percentage. Friction ratio is an important parameter for classifying soil
 Relationship between relative density
ID and penetration resistance qc for
82
sand
Relationship between cone point resistance
qc and angle of internal friction f for sand
83
 Relationship Between qc and
84
Undrained Shear Strength, cu of Clay
 The cone penetration resistance qc and cu may be related as
qf o
cu 
Nk
 where, Nk = cone factor,
 so = overburden pressure.
 The value of the cone factor Nk for both normally consolidated and overconsolidated
clays are given below:
 Soil Classification
85
 Limitations of CPT
86
 SELECTION OF FOUNDATION BASED ON
SOIL CONDITION
87

 Spread Footings:
 Used for most buildings where the loads are light and / or there are strong shallow soils.
 These footing deliver the load directly to the supporting soils.
 Generally suitable for low rise buildings (1-4 Stories).
 Requires firm soil conditions that are capable of supporting the building on the area of the
spread footings.
 When needed footings at columns can be connected together with grade beams to provide more
lateral stability in earthquakes.
 These are most widely used because they are most economical.
 Spread footings should be above the water table.
 Concrete spread footings are at least as thick as the width of the stem.
 SELECTION OF FOUNDATION BASED ON
SOIL CONDITION
88

 Mat Foundations:
 Reinforced concrete raft or mats can be used for small light load buildings on very
weak or expansive soils such as clays.
 They allow the building to float on or in the soil like a raft.
 Can be used for buildings that are 10-20 stories tall where it provides resistance
against overturning.
 Can be used where soil requires such a large bearing area and the footing might be
spread to the extant that it becomes more economical to pour one large slab (thick),
more economical – less forms.
 Usually used over expansive clays, silts to let foundation settle without great
differences.
 SELECTION OF FOUNDATION BASED ON
SOIL CONDITION
89

 Piles: for expansive soils or soils that are compressive with heavy loads where deep
soils can not take the building load and where soil of better capacity if found deep
below.
  There are two types of piles.
 Friction piles – used where there is no reasonable bearing stratum and they rely

on resistance from skin of pile against the soil.

 End bearing – which transfer directly to soil of good bearing capacity.

 The bearing capacity of the piles depends on the structural strength of the pile
itself or the strength of the soil, whichever is less.
 SELECTION OF FOUNDATION BASED ON
SOIL CONDITION
90

 Drilled Piers or Caissons:

  For expansive soils with low to medium loads, or high loads with rock not too far
down, drilled caissons (piers) and grade beams can be used.
 The caissons might be straight or belled out at bottom to spread the load.
 The grade beam is designed to span across the piers and transfer the loads over to a
column foundation.
 Caissons deliver the load to soil of stronger capacity which is located not too far
down.
91

END OF UNIT - I