DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN

Instructor: Yahya Ali Khan

Email: yahya.ali@se.uol.edu.pk
 COURSE TEXTBOOK
• M. Morris Mano, Digital Design, 4th Edition, Prentice-Hall,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2002.
• NOTE:
• Excellent textbook on digital design
• Textbook covers approximately 90% of the course material
• Digital Version Available on slate.

4/29/21 Lecture Notes - EE 222: Digital Logic Design 2

IMPORTANCE OF DIGITAL LOGIC DESIGN
1. An understanding of computer architecture can lead to better
hardware / software systems
2. Digital design techniques can often be applied to the design of
complex software systems
3. Digital design tools are an example of a real-world application
of complex software systems
4. Engineering design and analysis is an essential component of
any successful digital design project

4/29/21 Lecture Notes - EE 222: Digital Logic Design 3

 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
• Computer
“a programmable device that can store, retrieve, and process data.”
− Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
• Program
“to work out a sequence of operations to be performed by a mechanism.”
− Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary

4/29/21 Lecture Notes - EE 222: Digital Logic Design 4

 WHAT IS A DIGITAL COMPUTER?

Source:
J. von Neumann, First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. Technical Report W-6700RD-492, Moore School of
Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, June 1945.

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 GOALS OF THIS COURSE
• The goals of this course are the following:
1. Learn about the representation of complex information in a digital computer
system
2. Investigate the components that form a digital computer
3. Design and analyze simple digital circuits
4. Understand the fundamental design tradeoffs associated with digital circuit design
• This course introduces digital design and computer architecture
concepts
• Previous knowledge of digital design is not required

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 NUMBER SYSTEMS AND
INFORMATION REPRESENTATION
 DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
• The decimal number system has a base of 10
• When a quantity is written without a base specified, the quantity
is assumed to have a base of 10
• Consider the quanity, 8 192:
8 192 = (8 192)10
= 8 · 103 + 1 · 102 + 9 · 101 + 2 · 100
• For fractional quantities, negative exponents are used
• Consider the quantity, 12.5:
12.5 = (12.5)10
= 1 · 101 + 2 · 100 + 5 · 10-1

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 DIGITAL INFORMATION REPRESENTATION

• The decimal number system is not ideal for representing digital

information in a digital computer system
• Computers represent data using a binary (two-valued) representation
• Some binary representations of 0’s and 1’s are the following:

Representation of 0 Representation of 1
Voltage (e.g., 0 V) Voltage (e.g., 3.3 V)
Current (e.g., 0 mA) Current (e.g., 10 mA)
Switch Position (e.g., closed) Switch Position (e.g., open)
Capacitor (e.g., discharged) Capacitor (e.g., charged)

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 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
• The binary number system has a base of 2
• In binary, each digit is assigned a weight that is a power of 2

Powers of Two

n 2n n 2n n 2n
-8 0.00390625 0 1 8 256
-7 0.0078125 1 2 9 512 NOTE:
-6 0.015625 2 4 10 1024 This table is similar to
-5 0.03125 3 8 11 2048 Table 1.1 in the
textbook. However, it
-4 0.0675 4 16 12 4096
includes the negative
-3 0.125 5 32 13 8192
powers of two as well.
-2 0.25 6 64 14 16384
-1 0.5 7 128 15 32768

4/29/21 Lecture Notes - EE 222: Digital Logic Design 10

 DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
VS. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal Number System Binary Number System

• Base 10 • Base 2
• Digits range from 0 to 9 • Digits range from 0 to 1
• Fewer digits are required to represent • Many digits are required to represent
large quantities large quantities

Decimal vs. Binary Comparison Example

(8 192)10 = (1 0000 0000 0000)2

4 digits vs. 13 digits

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 IMPORTANT POWERS OF 2
• There are certain powers of 2 that are “easier” to remember due
to their importance:
• For example:
210 = 1 024 = Kilo = (1 024)1
220 = 1 048 576 = Mega = (1 024)2
230 = 1 073 741 824 = Giga = (1 024)3
240 = 1 099 511 627 776 = Tera = (1 024)4

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 AN ASIDE: ADDRESSABLE STORAGE RANGES

• Addressable storage ranges (e.g., memory capacities) are

determined by the number of address bits and the word size:
16 address bits (216 = 65 536 = 64 kbits · Word Size)
32 address bits(232 = 4 294 967 296 = 4 Gbits · Word Size)
• For example, an embedded computer with a 20-bit address bus
and a 32-bit word size can theoretically support:
220 · 32 bits of data = 4 Mbytes
• For example, a typical personal computer with a 32-bit address
bus and a 32-bit word size can theoretically support:
232 · 32 bits of data = 16 Gbytes

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 UNSIGNED BINARY ARITHMETIC
• For now, assume that all binary numbers are unsigned
• Unsigned binary arithmetic uses the same rules as decimal
arithmetic
Addition Example

Augend: (1101 0110)2 (214)10

Addend: (0011 0010)2 (50)10
______________ ________
Sum: (1 0000 1000)2 (264)10

Subtraction Example

Minuend: (1101 0110)2 (214)10

Subtrahend: (0011 0010)2 (50)10
____________ ________
Difference: (1010 0100)2 (164)10

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 UNSIGNED BINARY ARITHMETIC
• Multiplication simplifies to replicating and shifting the
multiplicand:

Multiplication Example
Multiplicand: (1010)2 (10)10
Multiplier: (0110)2 (6)10
________ ______
(0000)2 (0)10
(1 010)2 (20)10
(10 10)2 (40)10
(000 0)2 (0)10
______________ ______
Product: (0011 1100)2 (60)10

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 SOME CONVERSION EXAMPLES
• (12.5)10 = (1100.1)2
• (82.625)10 = (0101 0010.101)2
• (0.0125)10 = (0.0000 0011 0001 1000 1100 011…)2

• The last conversion is quite ugly. The conversion algorithm is

shown on the next slide…

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CONVERSION OF (0.0125)10 TO BINARY
Approximate Answer Fraction Remaining
0.0125 · 2 = 0.025 (0.0)2 0.025
0.0250 · 2 = 0.05 (0.00)2 0.05
0.05 · 2 = 0.1 (0.000)2 0.1
0.1 · 2 = 0.2 (0.0000)2 0.2
0.2 · 2 = 0.4 (0.0000 0)2 0.4
0.4 · 2 = 0.8 (0.0000 00)2 0.8
0.8 · 2 = 1.6 (0.0000 001)2 0.6
0.6 · 2 = 1.2 (0.0000 0011)2 0.2
0.2 · 2 = 0.4 (0.0000 0011 0)2 0.4
0.4 · 2 = 0.8 (0.0000 0011 00)2 0.8
… … … …

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 INTERESTING ASIDES…
1. The MS-Windows Calculator does not convert a fractional
quantity to its equivalent binary representation
• The answer is truncated
• If anyone ever gets a chance to fix the calculator, please do so
2. A decimal fraction with a fixed number of decimal digits may
actually convert to a binary fraction with an infinite number of
binary digits!

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 OCTAL REPRESENTATION
• Octal is base 8
• Digits range from 0 to 7 {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}
• (10 101 011)2 = (253)8 = (171)10

2 5 3

• Octal is rarely used

• Octal representations may be used for specifying file permissions in Unix-based
systems

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 HEXADECIMAL REPRESENTATION
• Hexadecimal is base 16
• Digits range from 0 to F {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F}
• (1010 1011)2 = (253)8 = (171)10 = (AB)16

A B

• Hexadecimal is often used in C, C++, and C# to specify large

quantities (constants, addresses, etc.)
• For example, 0xAB represents (171)10
• Hardware designers sometimes use 0xDEAD as a 16-bit constant to indicate a
problem

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 COMPLEMENTS
• Complements of numbers are often useful to simplify arithmetic
• Two types of complements are popular:
• Diminished Radix Complement (1’s complement for binary)
• Radix Complement (2’s complement for binary)

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 DIMINISHED RADIX COMPLEMENT
• Given a number N in base r having n digits, the diminished radix
complement is defined as (rn - 1) – N
• This is often called the (r-1)’s complement
• For the binary number system, the diminished radix complement
is referred to as the 1’s complement
• Complement of an 8-bit quantity N is (28 - 1) - N = 255 – N
• To calculate the 1’s complement, simply complement each bit
• For example, the 1’s complement of (1010 0011)2 is (0101 1100)2

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 RADIX COMPLEMENT
• Given a number N in base r having n digits, the radix
complement is defined as rn – N
• This is often called the r’s complement
• For the binary number system, the radix complement is referred
to as the 2’s complement
• Complement of an 8-bit quantity N is 28 - N = 256 – N
• To calculate the 2’s complement, simply complement each bit and add 1 to the
quantity
• For example, the 2’s complement of (1010 0011)2 is (0101 1101)2

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 SUBTRACTION WITH R’S COMPLEMENT
• The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M - N in base r
can be done as follows:
1. Add the minuend, M, to the r’s complement of the subtrahend, N to produce an
intermediate result. This performs M + (rn - N) = M - N + rn.
2. If M ≥ N, the sum produces an end carry, rn, which can be discarded. The final
answer is M - N.
3. If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry and the sum is equal to rn - (N -
M) which is the r’s complement of (N - M). The final answer is the negative r’s
complement of the sum.

4/29/21 Lecture Notes - EE 222: Digital Logic Design 24

 SUBTRACTION EXAMPLE
• Using 2’s complement, subtract (1010)2 – (0110)2
M = (1010)2
N = (0110)2
2’s complement of N = (1010)2

M–N = M + 2’s complement of N (sort of…)

M = (1010)2
2’s complement of N = (1010)2
___________
NOTE:
Intermediate Result = (1 0100)2
The end carry
Final Answer = (0100)2
is discarded to
arrive at the
final result.

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 SUBTRACTION WITH (R - 1)’S COMPLEMENT

• When using (r-1)’s complement, the end carry is treated

differently
• If M ≥ N, the end carry is truncated and 1 is added to the
intermediate result to produce the final answer
• If M < N, the final answer is the negative (r - 1)’s complement of
the intermediate result

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 SUBTRACTION EXAMPLE
• Using 1’s complement, subtract (1010)2 – (0110)2
M = (1010)2
N = (0110)2
1’s complement of N = (1001)2

M–N = M + 1’s complement of N (sort of…)

M = (1010)2
1’s complement of N = (1001)2
____________ NOTE:
Intermediate Result = (1 0011)2 A value of 1 is
Final Answer = (0100)2 added to the result
to compensate for
the representation.

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 SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS
• Signed binary numbers can be represented three different ways:
1. Signed Magnitude Representation
2. Signed 1’s Complement Representation
3. Signed 2’s Complement Representation
• For example, (-36)10 can be represented in binary as follows:
1. (1010 0100)2 in signed magnitude representation
2. (1101 1011)2 in signed 1’s complement representation
3. (1101 1100)2 in signed 2’s complement representation

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 COMPARISON OF SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

Decimal Signed Magnitude Signed 1’s Complement Signed 2’s Complement

+7 0111 0111 0111

+6 0110 0110 0110

+5 0101 0101 0101

+4 0100 0100 0100

+3 0011 0011 0011

+2 0010 0010 0010

+1 0001 0001 0001

+0 0000 0000 0000

-0 1000 1111 N/A

-1 1001 1110 1111

-2 1010 1101 1110

-3 1011 1100 1101

-4 1100 1011 1100

-5 1101 1010 1011

-6 1110 1001 1010

-7 1111 1000 1001

-8 N/A N/A 1000

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 IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
FOR SIGNED BINARY NUMBERS

• If the most significant bit is a 0, the number is positive

• If the most significant bit is a 1, the number is negative
• The signed binary number representation is irrelevant for the
purpose of determining whether a value is positive or negative

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 SIGNED ARITHMETIC
• Signed arithmetic obeys the same basic rules as unsigned
arithmetic
• Carries beyond the width of the number representation should be
discarded
• Width of number representation must be large enough to avoid
an overflow condition
• Overflow occurs if both number possess the same sign and the result possesses a
different sign
• Overflow can be accommodated by making the result 1 bit larger

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 SIGNED ARITHMETIC EXAMPLES
• Consider the following examples:
Addition Example 1 Addition Example 2
Augend: (0110)2 (6)10 Augend: (1110)2 (-2)10
Addend: (1010)2 (-6)10 Addend: (1010)2 (-6)10
_________ _____ _________ _____
Sum: (1 0000)2 (16)10 Sum: (1 1000)2 (-8)10

Discarding the carry… Discarding the carry…

Sum: (0000)2 (0)10 Sum: (1000)2 (-8)10

NOTE:
2’s complement arithmetic has
been used in these examples.

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 BINARY CODED DECIMAL (BCD)
• Binary coded decimal is an “obvious” Decimal Digit BCD Digit
representation of decimal digits 0 0000

• BCD uses 4-bits to represent a decimal 1 0001

digit 2 0010

• Bit patterns 1010 through 1111 are not 3 0011

4 0100
used by BCD
5 0101
• BCD to decimal conversion is trivial
6 0110

7 0111

8 1000

9 1001

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 UNSIGNED BCD ADDITION
• It is possible to add two numbers specified in BCD
• To compensate for the unused bit patterns, a value of (6)10 is
added to each BCD digit greater than (9)10 to account for the true
value of carries between BCD digits
• BCD addition is prone to errors when done by hand

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UNSIGNED BCD ADDITION EXAMPLE
BCD Carry (1)BCD (1)BCD
(0010)BCD (1000)BCD (0100)BCD (284)10
(0110)BCD (0111)BCD (0110)BCD (676)10
_____________ ________________ _____________ __________

Binary Sum (1001)BCD (1 0000)BCD (1010)BCD (960)10

Add (6)10 (0110)BCD (0110)BCD
_____________ ________________ _____________ __________

BCD Sum (1001)BCD (0110)BCD (0000)BCD (960)10

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 GRAY CODE
• Gray code is a binary code that minimizes the number of bits
that change values during incrementing or decrementing
• Extremely useful code for systems that process continuous
signals (e.g., sampled analog signals) and for low-power
computer systems (e.g., cellular phones)
• Fewer bits changing provides the following benefits:
1. Lower dynamic power consumption
2. Faster data transitions
3. Greater reliability of data

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 GRAY CODE
Decimal Gray Decimal Gray
Number Code Number Code
0 0000 8 1100
1 0001 9 1101
2 0011 10 1111
3 0010 11 1110
4 0110 12 1010
5 0111 13 1011
6 0101 14 1001
7 0100 15 1000

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 GRAY CODE VS. ORDINARY BINARY CODE

• Consider the example of a transition from (7)10 to (8)10:

• Using an ordinary binary code, 4 bits change
• For example, (0111)2 becomes (1000)2
• Using a Gray code, only 1 bit changes
• For example, (0100)2 becomes (1100)2

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 AMERICAN STANDARD CODE
FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE (ASCII)

• ASCII is the standard binary code for alphanumeric characters

• Standard ASCII is a 7-bit code
• Extended ASCII is a 8-bit code
• Each alphanumeric character is assigned to a unique binary code

For more information on ASCII,

refer to www.asciitable.com

4/29/21 Lecture Notes - EE 222: Digital Logic Design 39

 UNICODE
• Unicode is a code for representing multiple alphanumeric
character sets
• UTF-16 is a 16-bit Unicode representation of alphanumeric
characters from many diverse character sets
• Most significant byte specifies the code set
• Least significant byte specifies the character within the block
• 8-bit (UTF-8) and 32-bit (UTF-32) Unicode representations also
exist
• Code set for Basic Latin resembles the extended (8-bit) ASCII
character set

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 UNICODE
• Unicode supports many code charts including the following:
00xx Basic Latin
20xx General Punctuation
21xx Arrows
22xx Mathematical Operators
26xx Miscellaneous Symbols
27xx Dingbats
• A complete summary of all Unicode code charts can be found at
http://www.unicode.org/charts/

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 UNICODE
• For further information on Unicode:
The Unicode Consortium. The Unicode Standard, Version 4.0 (Boston, MA, Addison-
Wesley, 2003. ISBN 0-321-18578-1

For more information on Unicode,

refer to www.unicode.org

4/29/21 Lecture Notes - EE 222: Digital Logic Design 42

 PARITY
• Parity is a simple form of error detection that uses a single bit to
uncover errors in data bits
• Standard ASCII only uses 7-bits so the 8th bit may be used for
error detection
• Four types of parity bits:
1. Even Parity 8th bit is a 0 if the number of 1’s is already even
2. Odd Parity 8th bit is a 0 if the number of 1’s is already odd
3. Mark Parity 8th bit is always a 1
4. Space Parity 8th bit is always a 0

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 PARITY EXAMPLES

ASCII Bit Even Odd Mark Space

Character Pattern Parity Parity Parity Parity
0 011 0000 0 1 1 0
1 011 0001 1 0 1 0
2 011 0010 1 0 1 0
3 011 0011 0 1 1 0
A 100 0001 0 1 1 0
B 100 0010 0 1 1 0
C 100 0011 1 0 1 0
D 100 0100 0 1 1 0

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 COMMENTS ON ERROR DETECTION
WITH PARITY

• Parity bits are particularly useful when transmitting data over a

wire in a noisy environment
• Even parity and odd parity can successfully detect 1, 3, 5, and 7
bit errors in a 7-bit ASCII bit pattern with 1 parity bit
• 2 bit, 4 bit, 6 bit, and 8 bit errors are masked (e.g., two wrongs make a right)
• Mark parity and space parity can successfully detect errors in the
parity bit only
• Errors in the parity bit may indicate a problem during data transmission
• Mark and space parity are reasonably good for detecting burst errors in a noisy
environment

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 ADVANCED ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION

• What if you need to send data to MARS and you can’t afford to
waste 14 minutes (e.g., the round-trip delay) to resend the data?
• Advanced error detection and correction techniques
• Techniques exist for detecting and/or correcting multiple bit
errors
• Advanced techniques are beyond the scope of this course
• ECE 324 (Microprocessor Systems and Interfacing) dedicates 3 lectures to error
detection and correction

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