Introduction to PID Control

Brad Schofield, BE ICS AP

05/19/2021 Brad Schofield 2

Course plan
• 09:00-10:00: What is PID control?
• 10:00-10:30: The UNICOS PID controller
• 10:30-10:45: Coffee
• 10:45-11:15: Manual tuning
• 11:15-12:00: Manual tuning exercise
• 12:00-14:00: Lunch
• 14:00-15:00: Autotuning
• 15:00-16:00: Autotuning exercise
• 16:00-16:15: Coffee
• 16:15-17:00: Questions & Wrap-up

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What is PID Control?
• Let’s take a step back… What is control?
• Control is just making a dynamic process
behave in the way we want
• We need 3 things to do this:
• A way to influence the process
• A way to see how the process behaves
• A way to define how we want it to behave

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Defining behaviour
• We usually specify a value we want some
output of the system to have
• Usually called the Setpoint (SP)
• Can be the temperature of a room, the level in a
tank, the flow rate in a pipe…
• The value can be fixed, or may change with
time…

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Influencing the process
• We need some kind of control input which
can create changes in the behavior of the
process
• Can be a heater, a valve, a pump…
• Typically it is not the same physical quantity
as what we are controlling

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Observing behavior
• If we knew exactly how the process worked,
we would know what the output would be for a
given control input…
• Most of the time we don’t know exactly, so we
need to measure what the process does
• Usually called Measured Variable (MV) or
Process Variable (PV)

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Feedback Control
• Now we have a measurement (MV), some
value that we want it to be (SP), and some
way to make changes to the process
(control input)
• We can ‘close the loop’

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The Controller as a System
• Now we can see that any controller can be
thought of as a system that takes a setpoint
and a measured value as inputs, and gives
a control signal as an output
SP
Controller Control
MV

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The Controller as a System
SP
Controller Control
MV

• The controller needs to convert two signals

of one physical quantity (such as
temperature) into one signal of another
(such as valve position)

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The Controller as a System
• We know that the process is a dynamic
system:
• Its outputs depend on current inputs as well as its
past state
• For the controller to deal with this, it makes
sense that it should be a dynamic system too

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The Error Signal
• Very often we can think of the controller
acting on the difference between SP and
MV:
+ Error
SP Σ Controller Control
-

MV

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The Closed Loop
+ e u
SP Σ Controller Process
-

MV

This is the ‘classic’ closed loop block diagram

representation of a control system

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A Dynamic Controller
• We said that since the process is dynamic
(dependent on inputs made at different times), it
makes sense that the controller should be too
• How do we usually think of time?
• ‘Present’
• ‘Past’
• ‘Future’

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Splitting the Controller

Present
+ e u
SP Σ Past Process
-
Future

MV

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The ‘Present’
•  
This part of the controller is only concerned
with what the error is now
• Let’s take a simple law: let the control signal
be proportional to the error:

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Proportional Control
•  
This is what is referred to as proportional
control. The control action at any instant is
the same as a constant times the error at the
same instant
• The constant is the Proportional Gain, and
is the first of our controller’s parameters

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Proportional Control
𝒖=𝒌
  𝒑 ×𝒆
Proportional
+ e u
SP Σ Past Process
-
Future

MV

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Is Proportional Control enough?
• Intuitively it seems like it should be fine on
its own: when the error is big, the control
input is big to correct it. As the error reduced
so does the control input.
• But there are problems…

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 Problem 1
Think of a pendulum.
If the setpoint is
hanging straight down,
then gravity acts as a
proportional controller
for the position…
Pendulum will oscillate!

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Problem 2
• What happens when
the error is zero?
• Control input is zero.
• Causes problems if
we need to have a
nonzero control
value while at our
setpoint

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Problem 2: steady state error
This problem is Easiest to see for tank
normally called steady level control: If there is
state error a constant flow out of
It’s a confusing name. the tank, the controller
The issue is just that must provide the same
the controller can’t flow in, while the level
produce any output is at the setpoint.
when the error is zero.

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Problem 2: steady state error
•With
  P control, once
the error has reached
a value where is equal
to the flow out, the
level will stabilize. But
it will be different to the
setpoint

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P control problem summary
• Problem 1: • Problem 2: steady
oscillations state error
• P control will give us • P control cannot
oscillations in some give us a nonzero
processes, value of the control
regardless of the at zero error for
value of the gain some types of
parameter. process

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 Solving P control’s problems
• How to get rid of steady state error?
• Let’s ignore the present for the moment and
concentrate on what has happened in the
past

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Solving steady state error: ‘the Past’

Proportional
+ e u
SP Σ Past Process
-
Future

MV

• Let’s look at the error in the past

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 Solving steady state error
We can examine how
the controller error has
evolved in the past
If we sum up the past
values of the error, we
can get a value that
increases when there is
a constant error

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Integral Action
•We can let the control be given by the sum of
past values of the error, scaled by some gain.
In continuous time the sum is an integral:

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Integral Action
𝒕
 
𝒖= 𝒌 𝒊∫ 𝒆 ( 𝝉 ) 𝒅 𝝉
𝟎
Proportional
+ e u
SP Σ Integral Process
-
Future

MV

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Integral gain, Integral time
•Here
  is where confusion can start…
We have an integral gain which converts an
integrated error to a control signal
We would actually like to parameterize this as
a time, as in how fast we can remove a steady
state error

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Integral gain, Integral time
•Let’s
  rewrite:

As:

is our Proportional Gain, and is our Integral

Time

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The Integral time
  do we use both
•Why and here?

Let’s add the proportional and integral parts:

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Proportional and Integral Controller 𝒕
  𝒌𝒑
𝒖=𝒌 𝒑 𝒆 ( 𝒕 ) + ∫ 𝒆 ( 𝝉 ) 𝒅 𝝉
𝑻𝒊 𝟎
Proportional
+ e u
SP Σ Integral Process
-
Future

MV

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Proportional and Integral Controller = PI Controller
•We  can rewrite the control law:

is the gain parameter, is the time it takes to fix

a steady state error

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 Solving P control’s problems revisited
• We solved the steady state error by adding
integral action (summing the past)
• How can we solve the oscillation problem?
• Let’s look at the future!

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Solving oscillations: ‘the Future’

Proportional
+ e u
SP Σ Integral Process
-
Future

MV

• Let’s look at the error in the future

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 Solving oscillations: ‘the Future’
How do we predict the
future of the error?
Look at its gradient!
If the gradient (the time
derivative) of the error is
in a direction that makes
the error smaller, we can
reduce the control input

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Damping
It can be easier to think
of this as damping,
something that resists
velocity
Think of the wheel on
your car…

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Damping
The spring is a
proportional controller
for the wheel position.
The damper adds a
derivative action by
opposing the velocity
of the wheel

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 Derivative action
•Let’s
  let the control be dependent on the
derivative of the error:

Here is the derivative gain. Let’s again split

this into , where is the derivative time

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Derivative action
  𝒅𝒆 (𝒕 )
𝒖=𝒌 𝒑 𝑻𝒅
𝒅𝒕
Proportional
+ e u
SP Σ Integral Process
-
Derivative

MV

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PID Controller!
  𝒌𝒑 𝒕 𝒅𝒆(𝒕 )
𝒖=𝒌 𝒑 𝒆 ( 𝒕 ) + ∫ 𝒆 ( 𝝉 ) 𝒅 𝝉 +𝒌 𝒑 𝑻 𝒅
𝑻𝒊 𝟎 𝒅𝒕
Proportional
+ e u
SP Σ Integral Process
-
Derivative

MV

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Derivative Time
•Why
  do we want as a parameter?
We can think of it as how far ahead we want to
predict!
Easier to relate to process

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 Problems with Derivative action
We know that a
derivative amplifies
quick changes.
We can get problems if
MV is noisy.
Solution is to add low
pass filter

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 Derivative with filter
•We  already have:

Equations will get messy if we add a filter in

time domain! Let’s use Laplace! Then we can
use algebra instead of calculus.

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Derivative with filter
•Laplace
  transform frequency variable s is also
an operator. Multiplication by s is derivation,
and division is integration. So the derivative
part is now

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Derivative with filter
•We  add a low pass filter:

Now we have another parameter which is the

filter bandwidth. So introducing derivative
action requires two more parameters!

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Full PID equation
•The
  complete PID controller now looks like:

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Full PID equation
•This
  simplifies to:

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ISA PID Form
•This
  is the ISA ‘standard form’ for a PID

We have one gain, and three time constants

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The UNICOS PID Controller
Features and quirks

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UNICOS PID Features
• Uses
  the ISA standard equation we just derived
• Parameterized by , , ,
• Includes limits and ramps on setpoint and
output
• Can use scaling on input, or both input and
output

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UNICOS PID Modes

Point to note:
Manual Mode is not open loop!

Use Output positioning to set

open loop control output

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UNICOS PID Output Calculation

Note the scaling!

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UNICOS PID Scaling
• The scaling features are a little tricky, and
have important consequences when tuning
the controller!
• Need to be very careful when applying
tuning results! (More on this later!)

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Scaling types
• There are three types of scaling
• No scaling
• Input scaling
• Input and output (Full) scaling

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No Scaling
• This is the simplest. The inputs and outputs
are applied directly to the PID equation, so it
operates on engineering values. For
example the MV and SP may be
temperatures, and the output a power
command to a heater

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Input Scaling
• Here the input is scaled from engineering
values to a normalized value in the range 0-
100%. Scaling parameters must be provided.
For example 0 bar and 10 bar could be the
low and high limits, which are then mapped to
0% and 100% as seen by the PID algorithm.

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Full Scaling (Input and Output)
• The input is converted to a 0-100% signal as
before, and now the output of the controller
is converted from 0-100% to engineering
values before being applied to the process

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Scaling Pitfalls
•  
Note that the values of SP, MV and
controller output you see in the faceplate are
NOT the same as the PID equation ‘sees’ if
you use scaling!
• If you change the scaling type you MUST
scale your controller parameters ()!

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Manual PID Tuning

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P, PI, PD, PID?
•For 
the complete PID controller we have 4
parameters , , ,
But we can also choose to use only parts of the
controller, for example just, PI, giving 2
parameters to choose.
How do we know when to use what?

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The Process Model
We now know exactly what’s inside our
controller, but so far we haven’t said anything
about what’s inside our process!
To be able to tune the controller, we need to
know something about it.

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Open Loop Step Response
• A good starting point is to make an open
loop step test on the process
• Note that this is a step on the controller
output, not on the setpoint!

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 Open Loop Step Response
If our step response
looks something like
this, we have a stable
system with a first
order response

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First Order System
•We  canget 3 pieces of
information about the
process:
• Process Gain
• Time Constant
• Time Delay

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Process Gain
•This
 
is the ratio of the
change in MV to the
change in control input

In this case is (20-10)/

(5-0) = 2

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Time Constant
This is the ‘speed’ of
the process.
To read it from the
trend, look for the time
it takes for the MV to
rise to 63% of its final
value

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Time Constant
•Ok,  why 63%??
Because is about
0.63….
The step response is
so after time
this is

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Time Delay
This is simpler, it is just
the time it takes from
the start of the step
until the MV starts to
move.

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 First order process model
We
•   have 3 parameters that determine behavior
• determines how big the output change will be
• determines how long the process takes to get
there
• determines how long it takes before the
process starts doing anything at all

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Implications for control
The
•   key feature is the relation betweenand
• If is small and is big, control using PI is fine
• If is similar in size to , we may need a more
complex controller (PID)
• If is big relative to , PID will struggle; it will integrate
during the delay and then see a large jump!

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Mini Exercise: PIDSim
• Play with the process
model
• Try open loop steps
• What happens with
large delay times?
• What happens when
adding an integrator?

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 Tuning for a first order process
•We  have a process that looks like

And we know what , and are from our step

test. Let’s say that we want our controlled
system to behave like this, but with a time
constant

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Tuning for a first order process
•Now
  we know what our closed loop should look
like, and we also know what the process looks
like, and what the controller looks like. We ca
use the closed loop relation:

Where is our controller.

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Tuning for a first order process
•  
From here we can work out what controller
parameters we need!
This is called Internal Model Control (IMC)

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Internal Model Control (IMC)
•Once
  we do the math, we get these
parameters for PI:

(this is Skogestad’s IMC, S-IMC)

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Internal Model Control (IMC)
IMC rules are nice, because they are not just
heuristics: they are calculated from a desired
behavior.

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 Integrating processes
•  What happens
when the step
response is a
ramp?
• Process contains
an integrator!

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SIMC tuning rules
The rules can be
derived for a number of
different process
models

http://folk.ntnu.no/skoge/publications/2012/skogestad-improved-simc-pid/PIDbook-chapter5.pdf

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 SIMC for UNICOS PID
•Point
  to note: SIMC rules apply for a ‘cascade’
PID structure, not the ISA standard used by
UNICOS. For PI and PD they are the same, but
for the full PID we need to do a transformation
of the parameters:
,,

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Other tuning rules
• There are MANY other sets of tuning rules!

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Ziegler-Nichols
• You may have come across Ziegler-Nichols
• Early work (1942)
• Actually developed for fast setpoint tracking, so
they are really too aggressive for process
control!
• We will revisit them later!

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Tuning rule warning
Lots of tuning rules are based on heuristics,
which might only fit certain process types. In
addition, you need to be sure what controller
structure they are for. You also need to know
what the control aim is (setpoint following,
disturbance rejection)

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Recommendation: SIMC
• SIMC is good because:
• It forces you to do a step test and learn about
the process
• You can adjust the rules with an intuitive
parameter
• They are easily derived and therefore
understood

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Recommendation: SIMC
Recommendation is to start with SIMC.
If you’re still not happy, you can use it as a
baseline, and make manual adjustments from
there.

Let’s now make a tuning ‘recipe’!

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Tuning ‘recipe’
• Step 1: Preparation:
• Make sure it’s ok to put the process into open
loop
• Make sure the process is settled (steady state)
• Make sure you are close to your normal
operating point

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Tuning ‘recipe’
• Step 2: Open loop step test
• Put the controller into Output Positioning
• Make a small step in the output value
• Observe the MV, make sure it doesn’t hit the limits!
• Once the MV has settled, make a step back to
where you started.
• Put the controller back in regulation

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Tuning ‘recipe’
•  Step 3: Calculate process parameters
• Find , and
• (watch out for scaling!)
• is the time taken to rise to 0.63
• is the time between your step input and the first
change in MV

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Tuning ‘recipe’
•  Step 4: Calculate controller parameters
• Use SIMC: choose closed loop time
• Apply tuning rules:

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Tuning ‘recipe’
• Step
  5: Set parameters and test
• Apply the new parameters in the controller
• Make a small set point change and see how the
controller reacts
• If too aggressive, increase and recalculate
parameters
• If too slow, decrease and recalculate parameters

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Exercise: Manual tuning in UNICOS

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 Hints! Input and I/O scaling
 
•Input Scaling •I/O  Scaling
• Find from the trend • Find ,
• Calculate new : • Calculate new :

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 Autotuning
The UNICOS Autotuning tool

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Autotuning
• What is autotuning?
• It is NOT a system which continuously updates
the controller parameters (this is adaptive
control)
• It is just a set of tools to automate the procedure
of finding a set of parameters

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Open vs Closed Loop
• In our manual tuning we did an open loop
experiment (step test) and found parameters
from there. This procedure can be
automated
• There are also methods that allow us to
keep the loop closed

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Automated SIMC Tuning
• Let’s revisit the SIMC method
• Doing the calculations and keeping track of
the scaling was a pain
• The UNICOS autotuner automates most of
this for us

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 UNICOS SIMC Autotune
• Open the controller
1

3
faceplate and go to
Autotune
4
• Select SIMC (1)
• First, we need to
2
identify the process
parameters (2)

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UNICOS SIMC Autotune
• We enter a step
size, and it performs
the step test,
stopping when MV
has settled.

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 UNICOS SIMC Autotune
•• Now
  we select the
1
closed loop response
3
time (3)
• This gives us the
4 proposed parameters (4)
• We can apply them to
2
the controller (unless set
by APAR; these must be
set manually)

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 Closed Loop Autotuning
• What if we want to remain in closed loop
when tuning?
• We can use the Relay Method
• Effectively exchanges the PID for an on/off
control

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 Relay Method
• Control only has 2
values, depending
on whether MV is
higher or lower than
SP
• Gives a square
wave oscillation

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 Relay Method: detail
•  Control goes
between and from
its original value,
with some
hysteresis

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 Relay Method: detail
•  Output oscillates
with an amplitude
• We get two pieces
of information from
this: Ultimate gain
and Ultimate Period

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Relay Method: calculation
•  
Ultimate gain •  
Ultimate Period is
comes from the just the period of
amplitude of the the resulting
fundamental oscillation
frequency of the
square wave

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 Relay Method: tuning
Again we have MANY rules to choose from.
Ziegler-Nichols are the most well known
Time delay and time constant similar

Integrator and time delay system

Time delay dominated system

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UNICOS Relay Autotuner
•The
  current version uses the Ziegler-Nichols
rules
• You may find the result too ‘aggressive’
• You can always ‘detune’ by reducing and
increasing by small amounts

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 UNICOS Relay Autotuner
• Select method RELAY
1
and controller type (1)
4
2
• We need to give an
amplitude (2). Before
starting, we should be
in steady state. Then
3
we can input Max and
Min values (ideally
symmetric!)

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 UNICOS Relay Autotuner
• We also need to
1

4
give the number of
2
cycles (2). 3 to 5 is
usually enough.
• Start the relay
3
experiment (3)

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UNICOS Relay Autotuner
• Popup opens.
Observe that we get a
nice square wave
with fairly constant
period.
• After the given
number of cycles, it
will stop automatically

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 UNICOS Relay Autotuner
• Ziegler-Nichols tuning
1

4
rules are applied
2
internally. There is no
user parameter
• Results are displayed
(4) and we can
3
choose to apply the
new parameters

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UNICOS Relay Autotuner
Practical notes:
• The experiment begins by checking for
steady state. It may take some time before
the relay cycles start
• If the experiment starts far from steady state,
it can cause problems

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 Iterative Feedback Tuning
• IFT tries to adjust
1 the control
4
2
parameters in order
to minimize a cost
function
• We won’t look at it
3
in detail here

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 Exercise: Autotuning in UNICOS
• Let’s try out the SIMC
and Relay methods
• Compare the results
to your results from
manual tuning
• Can you improve the
autotuning results?

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 Thanks for your attention!

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