Department of Automotive

Fundamentals of Automotive
Electricity & Electronics

BY: JOHNNY YM
 Introduction
Electricity:
A form of energy
called Electrical
energy.
Unseen force as it
cannot be seen, heard,
touched or, smelled.
But its
effect can
be seen,
heard,
touched
or, smelled.
 Electron theory
Electrons are the
smallest negatively
charged particles of
atoms & Electron
theory helps to explain
electricity.
Matter is any thing that
has mass & occupies
space & It may exists
either in solid, liquid or
gas phase.
Matter Composition:
Atoms

Molecules

Substance
 Atoms & Electricity
Each atom possess
electrical charge;
Electron: –ve,
Proton: +ve, &
Neutron: Neutral.
Balance atom:
No(Electrons) =
No(Protons)
-ve & +ve charges are
balanced and atract each
other.
Centrifugal force
prevents electrons from
moving inward.
 Cont…

If an atom:
Gains electrons: –ve ion
Losse electron: +ve ion
Positive ions attract
electrons from
neighboring atoms to
become balanced; this
causes electron flow.
 Cont…
The number of electrons in
the outer orbit (valence shell
or ring) determines the atom's
ability to conduct electricity.
Electrons in the inner rings are
closer to the core, strongly
attracted to the protons, and
are called bound electrons.
Electrons in the outer ring are
further away from the core,
less strongly attracted to the
protons, and are called free
electrons.
 Cont…

Electrons can be freed by forces such

as friction, heat, light, pressure,
chemical action, or magnetic action.
These freed electrons move away from
the electromotive force, or EMF
("electron moving force"), from one
atom to the next.
A stream of free electrons forms an
electrical current.
 Cont…
The electrical properties of
various materials are
determined by the number
of electrons in the outer ring
of their atoms.

CONDUCTORS:
 Materials with 1 to 3
electrons in the atom's
outer ring make good
conductors. The electrons
are held loosely, there's
room for more, and a low
EMF will cause a flow of free
electrons.
 Cont…

INSULATORS
Materials with 5 to 8 electrons in the
atom's outer ring are insulators. The
electrons are held tightly, the ring's
fairly full, and a very high EMF is
needed to cause any electron flow at
all. Such materials include glass,
rubber, and certain plastics.

SEMICONDUCTORS
Materials with exactly 4 electrons in
the atom's outer ring are called
semiconductors. They are neither
good conductors, nor good insulators.
Such materials include carbon,
germanium, and silicon.
 Current flow theory
Two theories describe current flow.
1. The conventional theory, commonly
used for automotive systems, says
current flows from (+) to (-) ... excess
electrons flow from an area of high
potential to one of low potential (-).
2. The electron theory, commonly used
for electronics, says current flows from
(-) to (+) ... Excess electrons cause an
area of negative potential (-) and flow
toward an area lacking electrons, an
area of positive potential (+), to balance
the charges.
While the direction of current flow makes
a difference in the operation of some
devices, such as diodes, the direction
makes no difference to the three
measurable units of electricity: voltage,
current, and resistance.
Terms of electricity, Measuring units & Devices
“Terms" used to describe electricity:
 voltage,
 current,
 resistance, &
 power.
Voltage:
 Is electrical pressure, a potential force or difference
in electrical charge between two points.
 Pushes electrical current through a wire, but not
through its insulation.
 Measured in volts.
 Measured by voltmeter being connected in parallel.
Cont…
 Cont…
Current:
 Electrical flow moving through a wire being pushed by
voltage.
 Measured in amperes.
 Measured by ammeter being connected in series.
 Cont…

RESISTANCE
 Opposes current flow.
 Changes electrical energy into another form of energy :
heat, light, motion.
 Measured in ohms.
 Measured by ohmmeter being connected in parallel.
 Cont…
Factors Affecting Resistance
Five factors determine the resistance of conductors: length
of the conductor, diameter, temperature, physical condition
and conductor material.
1. Length:
Electrons in motion are constantly colliding as voltage
pushes them through a conductor. If two wires are the same
material and diameter, the longer wire will have more
resistance than the shorter wire.
 Cont…

2. Diameter:
Large conductors allow more current flow
with less voltage. If two wires are the same
material and length, the thinner wire will
have more resistance than the thicker wire.
 Cont…
3. Temperature:
In most conductors, resistance increases
as the wire temperature increases.
Electrons move faster, but not
necessarily in the right direction.

Most insulators have less resistance at

higher temperatures.

Semiconductor devices called

thermistors have negative temperature
coefficients (NTC) & resistance
decreases as temperature increases.
Toyota's EFI coolant temperature
sensor has an NTC thermistor. Other
devices use PTC thermistors.
 Cont…

4. Physical condition:
Partially cut or nicked wire will act like smaller wire with
high resistance in the damaged area.

A kink in the wire, poor splices, and loose or corroded

connections also increase resistance.
 Cont…
5. Materials:
Materials with many free
electrons are good
conductors with low
resistance to current
flow.
Materials with many
bound electrons are poor
conductors (insulators)
with high resistance to
current flow.
 Cont…
Voltage, Current, And Resistance In
Circuits
Understanding the r/p among V, I &
R is important for fast, accurate
electrical problem diagnosis and
repair.

Ohm's Law says:

The current in a circuit is directly
proportional to the applied voltage
and inversely proportional to the
amount of resistance.
 This means that if
the voltage goes
up, the current flow
will go up, and vice
versa. Also, as the
resistance goes up, the
current goes down,
and vice versa.
 Cont…
ELECTRIC POWER AND WORK
Power, in watts, is a measure of electrical energy ... power (P) equals
current in amps (1) times voltage in volts (E),
P = I x E.
 Work, in wattseconds or watt-hours, is a measure of the energy used in a
period of time ... work equals power in watts (W) times time in seconds
(s) or hours (h),
W = P x time.
Electrical energy performs work when it is changed into thermal (heat)
energy, radiant (light) energy, audio (sound) energy, mechanical (motive)
energy, and chemical energy. It can be measured with a waft- hour meter.
 Actions Of Current

Current flow has the following effects:

 motion, light or heat generation,
 chemical reaction, and
 electromagnetism.

HEAT GENERATION
→When current flows through a lamp filament, defroster grid, or
cigarette lighter, heat is generated by changing electrical energy
to thermal energy. Fuses melt from the heat generated when too
much current flows.

CHEMICAL REACTION
→When current is sent into the battery by an alternator or a battery
charger to recharge it current flow causes an electrochemical
reaction that restores the metals and the acid-water mixture.
 Cont…

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Is there a relationship between
Electricity & Magnetism ?
How ?

All conductors carrying current create a magnetic

field. The magnetic field strength is changed by
changing current ... stronger (more current),
weaker (less current).
With a straight conductor, the magnetic field
surrounds it as a series of circular lines of force.
With a looped (coil) conductor, the lines of force
can be concentrated to make a very strong
field.
A strong electromagnet can be made by placing an
iron core inside a coil.
 Types Of Electricity

There are two types of electricity:

1. Static electricity and
2. Dynamic electricity.
2.1 Direct current (DC) or
2.2 Alternating current (AC).
 Cont…
STATIC ELECTRICITY
When two non conductors - such as a silk cloth and glass rod - are rubbed
together, some electrons are freed. Both materials become electrically charged.
 One is lacking electrons and is positively charged.
The other has extra electrons and is negatively charged.
These charges remain on the surface of the material and
do not move unless the two materials touch or are
connected by a conductor.
Since there is no electron flow, this is called static electricity.
 Cont…
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY
• When electrons are freed from their atoms and flow in a material, this is
called dynamic electricity.
If the free electrons flow in one direction, the electricity is called direct
current (DC). This is the type of
current produced by the vehicle's
battery.

If the free electrons change direction from positive to negative and back
repeatedly with time, the electricity is called alternating current (AC).
This is the type of current
produced by the vehicle's
alternator.
 Electrical circuit, diagram & components
Circuits, defined as complete
path, possess five basic
components:
1. Power source (battery or alternator) produces
voltage, or electrical potential.

2. Protection devices (fuses, circuit breakers)

interrupt the current path if too much current
flows.

3. Working devices, or loads (lamps, motors),

change the electrical energy into another form
of energy to perform work.

4. Control devices (switches, relays) turn the

current flow on and off.

Too much current is called an Overload , which

5. Ground path & Conductors (wires, printed could damage conductors and working devices.
circuit boards) provide a path for current flow.
 Types electrical circuits
There are three basic types of circuits:
 series,
 parallel, and
 series-parallel.
The type of circuit is determined by
how the power source, conductors,
loads, and control or protective
devices are connected.

SERIES CIRCUIT
 The conductors, control and
protection devices, loads, and
power source are connected
with only one path for current.
 The resistance of each device
can be different.
 The same amount of current
will flow through each.
 The voltage across each will
be different.
 If the path is broken, no
current flows.
 Cont…
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A parallel circuit has more than
one path for current flow.

The same voltage is applied

across each branch.

If the load resistance in each

branch is the same, the current
in each branch will be the same.
If the load resistance in each
branch is different, the current
in each branch will be different.

If one branch is broken, current

will continue flowing to the
other branches.
 Cont…

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
 A series-parallel circuit has some
components in series and others in
parallel.
 The power source and control or
protection devices are usually in
series; the loads are usually in
parallel.
 The same current flows in the series
portion, different currents in the
parallel portion.
 The same voltage is applied to
parallel devices, different voltages to
series devices.
 If the series portion is broken,
current stops flowing in the entire
circuit.
 If a parallel branch is broken, current
continues flowing in the series
portion and the remaining branches.
 Circuit Laws

IT = I1 = I2 = I3= ....In
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...... + Vn
RT= R1 + R2 + R3 + .... + Rn
 Cont…
Example:
Three resistors R1=3Ω,
R2=2Ω, & R3=1 Ω are
connected in series
with 12volt potential.
Calculate:
a) RT
b) IT, I1, I2, & I3
c) V1, V2, V3
What is voltage drop
d) Voltage b/n resisters
across a load?
 Cont…

RT = 1
1/R1 + 1/R2 + ..... +1/Rn
IT = I1 + I2 + .... + In
VT = V1 = V2 = ..... = Vn
 Cont…

Example:
Three resistors R1=2Ω,
R2=1Ω, & R3=0.5Ω are
connected in parallel
with 6volt potential.
Calculate:
a) RT
b) IT, I1, I2, & I3
c) V1, V2, V3
d) Voltage at inlet &
outlet of each
resisters
Cont…
 Cont…

Example:
Three resistors R1=2Ω,
R2=6Ω, & R3=3Ω are
connected in
series-parallel with
12volt potential.
Calculate:
a) RT
b) IT, I1, & I2
c) V , V1, & V2
DROP

d) Voltage at inlet &

outlet of each
resisters
 Circuit Failures
An electrical device operates normally if there are no malfunctions in its
circuit; Three common failures may happen in a circuit:
1) Open circuit
2) Short circuit
3) Poor connection
Open Circuit:
Suppose a light bulb does not illuminate (or an electrical device does not
operate normally) as shown in the diagram.

By measuring the voltage in each area, it becomes

evident that there is no voltage after connector A
 Cont…
Short Circuit:
 Supposing that the fuse has blown in the circuit shown in the diagram, check the cause of the
blown fuse.

 Because this is a direct current circuit in which the voltage remains constant, there is the
possibility of a short circuit between the wiring harness and ground that caused the excessive
amperage to flow.

Upon measuring the resistance between each connector and ground, 0 Ω has been detected at
connector B. This indicates that connector B has shorted to ground, causing an excessive
amperage to flow through this circuit.
 Cont…
Poor Circuit:
Assume that the light bulb illuminates dimly in the circuit shown in the diagram pinpointing a
certain malfunction in the circuit.

A voltage check at each end of the light bulb in the circuit has detected 9 V; However, the
expected normal voltage at each end of the light bulb is 12 V.

Because this is a direct current circuit, this symptom indicates the presence of a resistor other
than the light bulb. A subsequent voltage check at each end of the switch has detected 3 V.
This indicates that the switch presents resistance, possibly due to a poor contact.
 BASIC
ELECTRONICS
 Introduction
Electrons are extremely small,
negatively charged particles that circle
around a nucleus. The protons in the
nucleus are positively charged.
Electronics is the science or
technology that deals with the functions
of electrons, as well as the development
and application of parts, circuits, and
devices involving this technology.
(Transistors, diodes, ICs (Integrated
Circuits), and microprocessors are some
examples of applications.)
ICs and microprocessors are
comprised of electronic parts such as
transistors and diodes. These electronic
devices have replaced many of the
mechanical devices of the past as
electronic devices can be designed with
more functions and more compactness
than mechanical devices.
 Semiconductors

A semiconductor is a material with an electrical

resistance higher than that of good conductors such as
copper or iron, but lower than that of insulators such
as rubber or glass.

The two most commonly used semiconductor materials

are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si). However, in their
pure state, these are not suitable for practical use as
semiconductors. For this reason, they must be doped;
that is, slight amounts of impurities must be added to
enhance their practical use.

Characteristics of a semiconductor:
 As its temperature change, its
electrical resistance also chages.
 Its electrical conductivity increases when
mixed with certain other substances.
 Its electrical resistance changes when
exposed to light, magnetism, or mechanical
stress.
 It emits light when voltage is applied to it;
etc.
 Cont…
Semiconductors can be divided into two types:
1. N- type and
2. P-type.
N-type semiconductors:
An n-type semiconductor consists of a silicon (Si) or
germanium (Ge) base or substrate, which has been
doped with a slight amount of arsenic (As) or
phosphorus (P) in order to provide it with many free
electrons, which can easily move through the silicon or
germanium to provide electrical current.
The "n" of an n-type semiconductor stands for
"negative".
P-type semiconductors:
A p-type semiconductor, on the other hand, consists of a
silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge) substrate that has been
doped with gallium (Ga) or indium (In) to provide
"holes", which can be thought of as "missing" electrons,
and hence as positive charges flowing in a direction
opposite that of free electrons.
The "p" of a p-type semiconductor stands for "positive".
 Diodes

Semiconductor diodes are joined with a n-type and

p-type semiconductors.

There are several types of diodes:

1. Ordinary rectifying diode
2. Zener diode
3. LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
4. Photodiode
 Cont…
An electrical current flows through a diode:
(1) When the positive pole (+) of the battery is
connected to the p-side and the negative pole
(-) to the n-side, the positive holes of a p-type
semiconductor and the positive pole of the
battery repel each other. And the free electrons
of an n-type semiconductor and the negative
pole of the battery repel each other, thus
pushing them towards the p-n joining area. As
a result, the free electrons and the positive
holes attract each other, thus allowing the
current to flow across the p-n joining area.
(2) When the connections at the battery are
reversed, the positive holes of the p-type
semiconductor and the negative pole of the
battery attract each other, and the free electrons
of the n-type semiconductor and the positive
pole of the battery attract each other, thus
pulling away from the p-n joining area. As a
result, a layer that contains neither free
electrons nor positive holes is created at the p-n
joining area, thus preventing the current from
flowing.
 Cont…

Ordinary Diode
1. Description
An ordinary diode
allows a current
to flow only in
one direction:
from the p-side
to the n-side.
 Cont…
2. Characteristics
A minimum voltage is required for a current to
flow from the p-side to the n-side; examples:
Silicon diode (A): About 0.3V
Germanium diode (B): About 0.7V

The current will not flow if a voltage is applied

in the opposite direction (from the n-side to
the p-side).
Although an extremely small current
practically flows, called the reverse leakage
current, it is treated as non-flowing because
it does not affect the operation of the actual
circuit.
However, if this reverse leakage voltage is
sufficiently increased, the amperage of the
current allowed through by the diode will
suddenly increase. This phenomenon is
called diode breakdown, and the voltage
that is applied is called the breakdown
voltage.
 Cont…
3. Rectification function
(1) Half-wave rectification: Voltage from an AC generator is applied to a
diode.
Since the voltage shown between (a) and (b) is applied to the diode
toward to the forward direction, the current passes through the
diode.
However, because the voltage shown between (b) and (c) is applied to
the diode toward to the reverse direction, the current is not allowed
to pass through the diode.
Since only one half of the current which is generated by the generator
is allowed to pass through the diode.
 Cont…
(2) Full-wave rectification:
When terminal A of the generator is positive, terminal B is negative, and the current
flows as shown in the diagram of illustration (2).

When the polarity of the terminals is reversed, the current flows as shown in the
lower diagram of illustration (2). This means that output current always flows in
only one direction through resistor R.
 Cont…
4. Application example:
Ordinary rectifying diodes are used as rectifiers
for alternators.
 Cont…
Zener Diode
1. Description
While a Zener diode allows current to flow in
the forward direction in the same way as
an ordinary diode, it also allows current to
flow in the reverse direction under certain
conditions.

2. Characteristics
In the forward direction, current flows from
the p-side to the n-side through a Zener
diode in the same way as an ordinary
diode.

In the reverse direction, a current exceeding

a predetermined voltage flows through a
Zener diode. This is called a Zener voltage,
which remains practically constant regard-
ess of the amperage of the current.

A Zener diode can be assigned with different

Zener voltages depending on its
application or purpose.
 Cont…
3. Application example
Zener diodes are used for various purposes, one of the most
important of these being the voltage regulator for an
alternator. The output voltage is controlled constantly, by
incorporating the Zener diode into an electrical circuit.
 Cont…
LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
1. Description
The LED is a p-n joining diode, which
is the same as an ordinary diode. It
emits light when a current passes
through it in the forward direction.
LEDs can emit light in various colors,
such as red, yellow, and green.
2. Characteristics
LEDs have the following
characteristics:
 Smaller heat generation and
longer life than ordinary light bulbs.
 Emit bright light with low power
consumption.
 React with low voltage
(quick reaction speed).
 Cont…

3. Application example
LEDs are used in high-mount stop lights and
indicator lights, etc.
 Cont…
Photodiode
1. Description
The photodiode is a p-n joining diode
that consists of a semiconductor and
a lens.
If a reverse direction voltage is applied
to a photodiode that is exposed to
light, a reverse current will flow.
The amperage of this current will vary
in proportion to the amount of light
that falls on the photodiode.
In other words, the
photodiode can determine
the amount of the light by
detecting the amperage of the
reverse current when the
reverse voltage is applied.
 Cont…
2. Application example
Photodiodes are used in the solar sensors for air conditioners,
etc.
 Transistors

Ordinary Transistors
1. Description
A transistor contains three layers
consisting of a p-type semiconductor
sandwiched between two n-type
semiconductors, or an n-type
semiconductor sandwiched between
two p-type semiconductors.
An electrode is attached to each
substrate layer: B (base), E (emitter),
and C (collector).
Ordinary transistors come in two
varieties, npn and pnp, depending on
how the semiconductors are
arranged.
A transistor performs the following
functions:
•Amplification
•Switching
 Cont…
2. Basic operation
In an npn transistor, when
current IB flows from B to E,
current IC flows from C to E.

In a pnp transistor, when

current IB flows from E
(emitter) to B (base),
current IC flows from E to C.

The current IB is called the

base current, and current IC
is called the collector
current.

Therefore the current IC will

not flow unless the current
IB flows.
 Cont…

3. Characteristics
In an ordinary transistor, the collector
current (IC) and the base current (IB) have
the relationship shown in the diagram.
Ordinary transistors have two basic
functions or uses:
As shown in the graph aside, portion "A"
can be used as a signal amplifier and
portion "B" can be used as a switch.

4. Signal amplification
In range "A" of the graph, the collector
current is 10 to 1,000 times the base
current. Thus, the signal that the input
signal is enlarged is output from the
output terminal when the electrical signal
“B” (base) of the transistor is applied as
the input.
 Cont…
5. Switching function
In a transistor, the
collector current (IC) will
not flow unless the base
current (IB) flows.
Therefore, the collector
current can be turned
ON and OFF by turning
the base current (IB) ON
and OFF. This
characteristic of a
transistor can be utilized
as a relay switch.
 Cont…
6. Application example
Transistors are used in numerous circuits. There is no
functional difference between npn and pnp transistors.
 Cont…
Phototransistor
1. Characteristics
When the phototransistor
receives light while power (+)
is applied to its collector and
ground (-) is applied to its
emitter, a current flows
through the circuit.
The amperage of the current
that flows through the circuit
varies by the amount of light
that shines on the
phototransistor.
Therefore, the light that
shines on the
phototransistor has the same
function as that of the base
current of an ordinary
transistor.
 Cont…

2. Application example
In automobiles, phototransistors are used in
deceleration sensors, etc.
Thermistor

1. Description
A thermistor is a type of
semiconductor whose electrical
resistance changes with changes
in temperature; In other words, a
thermistor can determine the
temperature by detecting
resistance.
In the most common type of
thermistor, a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor, the resistance
decreases as the temperature
increases.
There is also a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) thermistor, in
which the resistance increases as
the temperature increases.
 Cont…

2. Application example
In automobiles, thermistors are used in the water
temperature sensor and intake air temperature sensor,
etc.
 Other Elements
1. Piezoresistive & Piezoelectric element
The electrical resistance of a piezoresistive element varies when it
is subjected to pressure or tension.
Piezoelectric elements produce a voltage when subjected to stress.
 Cont…
2. Magnetic resistance element
The electric resistance of a magnetic resistance element varies when a magnetic
field is applied to it.
HINT:
Because the changes in the resistance in these elements are small, ICs
(Integrated Circuits) are amplified. The resistance is then converted into pulse or
analog signals in order to use them as sensor signals.
 IC (Integrated Circuit)
Description
An IC is a combination of several to several
thousand electrical circuits containing
transistors, diodes, capacitors, resistors, etc.
These are built into or onto a several-
millimeter-square silicon chip, and placed in a
ceramic or plastic package.
A single IC can have several special abilities and
functions, including the ability to logically
compare two signals or numerical values, the
ability to amplify an input voltage, etc.
ICs have several advantages over non-ICs:
• Since many elements can be built into or onto
a single silicon chip, contact junctions can be
reduced considerably, resulting in reduced
failures.
• They are much smaller and lighter.
• Production costs are much lower.

REFERENCE:
An IC containing a large number of elements, i.e. 1,000 to
100,000, is called an LSI (Large Scale Integration).
An IC containing more than 100,000 elements is called a
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration).
Cont…
Analog and Digital Signals
Electrical signals can be
divided into two types:
analog and digital.
1. Analog signal
Analog signals change
continuously and smoothly
over time. Thus, the
general characteristic of an
analog signal is that its
output changes in
proportion to its input.
Cont…
2. Digital signal
Digital signals change (ON and OFF) intermittently
over time. The general characteristic of a digital
circuit is that its output changes suddenly when
its input increases to a certain level.
For example, while the input increases from 0 V
to 5 V, the output remains at 0 V until the input
reaches 5 V. However the output jumps suddenly
to 5 V at the instant the input reaches 5 V.
ON and OFF indicate whether a signal is being sent
or not. Normally, ON is represented as 1 and OFF
as 0.
When a voltage is used as an input signal it is
necessary to make a certain voltage as standard.
Then, all voltages above the standard voltage are
1 signals, and those below it are 0 signals.
For example, if the standard voltage of 5 V is set,
the computer will determine that 9 V, 7 V, and 6
V signals are 1, and that each of these represents
an input signal. Signals of 2 V and 0 V, on the
other hand, will be considered “0” and no input
signal will be considered to exist.
 Electronic/Logic Circuits
1. Description
Digital ICs contain several different
elements. The circuits in a digital IC are
called logic circuits or digital circuits,
and are made up of combinations of
different types of so-called gates, such
as NOT, OR, NOR, AND, and NAND
gates.

Because these gates have the special

ability to logically process two or more
signals, they are also called logic gates.
A certain logical relationship is established
between digital signal inputs and
outputs.

A truth table represents the relationship

between digital signal inputs and
outputs in a table format. In a truth
table, 1 represents the presence of a
voltage, and 0, its absence.
 Cont…
2. NOT gate
A NOT gate outputs a
signal that is the
opposite of the input
signal. When a voltage
is applied to input
terminal A, no voltage
is output at output
terminal Y.
Transpose this function
on a electrical circuit
that has the same
function as a NOT
gate. When switch A
closes (ON), it opens
(OFF) the contact
points in the relay,
which causes the lamp
to turn off.
 Cont…
3. OR gate
In an OR gate, the output
will be 1 as long as
either of the input
signals is 1.

When a voltage is applied

to either or both input
terminals A and B, there
will be a voltage at
output terminal Y.
Transpose this function
on a electrical circuit
that has the same
function as an OR gate.
When either or both
switches A or B are
closed (ON), the lamp
turns on.
 Cont…
4. NOR gate
A NOR gate is a
combination of an
OR gate and a NOT
gate.
The signal at output
terminal Y will be 1
only when both
input terminals A
and B are0 .
The signal at output
terminal Y will be 0
if either or both
input terminals A
and B are 1.
 Cont…
5. AND gate
In an AND gate, the
output will be 1
when all input
signals are 1.
There will be a voltage
at output terminal Y
when a voltage is
applied to both input
terminals A and B.
Transpose this function
on a electrical circuit
that has the same
function as an AND
gate. The lamp will
not turn on unless
both switches A and
B are closed (ON).
 Cont…

6. NAND gate
A NAND gate is a
combination of an
AND gate and a NOT
gate.
The signal at output
terminal Y will be 1
when either or both
input terminals A and
B are 0.
The signal at output
terminal Y will be 0 if
both input terminals A
and B are 1.
 Cont…
7. Comparator
A comparator compares the voltage of a positive (+) input with a negative (-)
input.
If the voltage of the positive input terminal A is higher than the voltage of
the negative input terminal B, the output terminal Y will be 1.
If the voltage of the positive input terminal A is lower than the voltage of
the negative input terminal B, the output terminal Y will be 0.
 Microcomputer
1. Description
A microcomputer receives
signals from input devices,
processes those signals, and
controls output devices. At
Toyota, a microcomputer is
called an ECU (Electronic
Control Unit).
In common on-vehicle systems,
input devices are sensors, and
output devices are actuators.
2. Construction
A microcomputer consists of a
CPU (Central Processing Unit),
various memory devices, and
an I/O (input/output)
interface.
 Cont…
Memory
Memory is comprised electric circuits that store programs to be operated
or data to be exchanged. There are two types of memory: ROM
(Read-Only Memory), and RAM (Random Access Memory).

The ROM cannot be changed or deleted. Thus, the stored data

will not disappear even if the power is turned off. For this
reason, the ROM is used for storing programs that do not need to
be changed or deleted.

The RAM is a type of memory in which data can be changed or

deleted. Any data that is stored disappears when the power is
turned off. Therefore, the RAM is used for storing data that can
be changed or deleted through calculations performed by
a CPU.
 Cont…
CPU
The CPU is the functional center of a computer that consists of a
control device and a computing device. It executes the
commands that are ordered by a program according to the
signals from the input devices, and controls the output devices.

I/O interface
An I/O interface converts the data from input devices into signals
that can be identified by the CPU and memory. In addition, it
reconverts the CPU-processed data into signals that can be
identified by the output devices. Because the data transfer
speeds of the I/O devices, CPU, and memory devices are
different, one of the functions of an I/O interface is to adjust
those speeds.
Thank
You !!