Discrete

Mathematics

Trees
 1. Introduction to Trees
Def 1 A Tree is a connected undirected graph with no circuits.

Example 1. Which of the graphs are trees?

Sol: G1, G2 ,G4

 Theorem 1. Any undirected graph is a tree if and only if
there is a unique simple path between any two of its
vertices.
Def 2. A Rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designed
as the root and every edge is directed away from the root.

Example
Definitions: a is the parent of b, b is the child of a,
a c, d, e are siblings,
a, b, d are ancestors of f
b c, d, e, f, g are descendants of b
c, e, f, g are leaves of the tree (deg=1)
c d e a, b, d are internal vertices of the tree
(at least one child)
f g
d
subtree with d as its root:
f g
 Def 3: A rooted tree is called an m-ary tree if every internal vertex
has no more than m children. The tree is called a full m-ary tree if
every internal vertex has exactly m children. An m-ary tree with m=2
is called a binary tree.

Example 3

full binary tree full 3-ary tree full 5-ary tree not full 3-ary tree
Def:
a

b c
left child of a

d e f
right child of c
left subtree of a

right subtree of a
Theorem 2. A tree with n vertices has exactly n-1 edges.

Proof. (by induction on n)

n = 1 : K1 is the only tree of order 1, |E(K1)| = 0. ok!
Assume the result is true for every tree of order n = k. w
Let T be a tree of order n = k+1, v be a leaf of T,
V=2
and w be the parent of v. E=1
v
Let T ’ be the tree T- {v}.
∴|V(T ’)| = k, and |E(T ’)| = k-1 by the induction
hypothesis.
 |E(T)| = k
By induction, the result is true for all trees.
 Theorem 3. A full m-ary tree with i internal vertices
contains n = mi + 1 vertices.
Proof. Every vertex, except the root, is the child of an internal vertex.
Each internal vertex has m children.  there are mi +1 vertices in the tree.
if a tree has i=3,m=3,then it has n= mi+1 vertices
i.e, n = 3*3+1=10 vertices

Corollary. A full m-ary tree with n vertices contains (n-1)/m

internal vertices, and hence n - (n-1)/m = ((m-1)n+1)/m leaves.
Def: The level of a vertex v in a rooted tree is the length of the unique
path from the root to this vertex.
The level of the root is defined to be zero.
The height of a rooted tree is the maximum of the levels of vertices.

Example level
0

1
Height of the tree = 4
2
3

4
Def: A rooted m-ary tree of height h is balanced if all
leaves are at levels h or h-1.

Example 11 Which of the rooted trees shown below are balanced?

Sol. T1, T3

Theorem 5. There are atmost mh leaves in an m-ary tree of height h.

Def: A complete m-ary tree is a full m-ary tree, where every leaf
is at the same level.

Ex How many vertices and how many leaves does a complete m-ary
tree of height h have?

Sol.
# of vertices = 1+m+m2+…+mh = (mh+1-1)/(m-1)

# of leaves = mh
 Cut-edge, Cut-vertex

 Cut edge(G-e or G-M) : The subgraph obtained by deleting an edge e or set of

edges M.
 Cut vertex(G-v or G-S) : The subgraph obtained by deleting a vertex v or set of
vertices S
 Example:

12 Graph Theory
 Cut-edge, Cut-vertex

 A cut-edge or cut-vertex of a graph is an edge or vertex

whose deletion increases the number of components
 Example:

Cut-edge Not a Cut-

vertex

Cut-edge

Cut-vertex

13 Graph Theory
 Trivial Tree: A Tree T with only one vertex ;other wise T is a nontrivial tree .
 Directed Tree: A rooted tree is a directed tree if there is root from which there is a
directed path to each vertex.
 Example:
 Properties of Trees:

 A simple non-directed graph G is a tree iff G is connected and

contains no cycles.
 In every non-trivial tree there is atleast one vertex of degree 1.
 A tree with n vertices has exactly n-1 edges.
 If G is a non-trivial tree then G contains atleast 2 vertices of a
degree 1.
 If 2 non adjacent vertices of a tree T are connected by adding b
an edge, then the resulting graph will contain a cycle. a
 A Graph G is a tree if and only if G has no cycles and
│E │= │V│-1. b c
 Spanning Trees
Def. Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree of G is a
subgraph of G that is a tree containing every vertex of G.
Example: Find a spanning tree of G.

Sol.
Remove an edge from any circuit.
(repeat until no circuit exists)
 Four spanning trees of G:

Thm 1 A simple graph G is connected if and only if it has

a spanning tree.
Circuit Rank of G: If G is a connected graph with n vertices and
m edges, a spanning tree of G must have n-1 edges. Hence, the
number of edges that must be removed before a spanning tree is
obtained must be m-(n-1)=m-n+1.This number is called the circuit
rank of G. i
a d f j
e
h
b c g k
No. of vertices(n)=11
No. of edges(m)=15
Circuit rank=m-n+1
=15-11+1=5
i The no. of edges that can be
d f j
a removed to get a spanning tree is 5.
e Therefore the total number of edges
h in the spanning tree is10
b c k
g
Ch10-18
 Spanning Trees
Efficient algorithms for finding a spanning tree of a connected
graph.
• Breadth First Search
• Depth First Search
BFS: Visit all the vertices sequentially on a given level before
going onto the next level.
DFS: proceeds successively to higher levels at the first
opportunity.

Ch10-19
 Breadth First Search
Algorithm:
Input: A connected graph G with vertices labeled V1,V2,-----Vn.
Output: A spanning tree T for G.
Method:
1.Let V1 be the root of T. Form the set V={v1}.
2.(Add new edges) Consider the vertices of v in order consistent with the
original labelling. Then for each vertex xєV, add the edge {x,vk} to T where k
is the minimum index such that adding the edge {x,vk} to T does not produce
a cycle. If no edge can be added, then stop; T is a spanning tree for G. After
all the vertices of V have been considered in order, go to step3.
3.(Update V) Replace V by all the children v in T of the vertices x of V
where the edges {x,v} were added in step2.Go back and repeat step2 for the
new set v.

Ch10-20
BFS Example:
i
a d f j
e
h
b c g k

Solution:
a d a d a d a d f
e
b b c b c e
b c
g
i
a d f d f j
a
e h e
h
b c b c k
g g

Ch10-21
•
BFS:
BFS partitions the edges of the graph G into two sets i.e, tree
edges and cross edges.
Tree edges: The edges that were included in the Breadth First
search spanning tree.
Cross edges: The edges that were rejected in the breadth first
search spanning tree.

Theorem: A non-directed graph G is connected if and only if G

contains a spanning tree. Indeed, if we successively delete edges
of cycles until no further cycles remain, then the result is a
spanning tree of G.

Ch10-22
Breadth-First Search (BFS)

Example : Use Breadth-first search to find a spanning tree for the

graph.
 Depth First Search
Algorithm:
Input: A connected graph G with vertices labeled V1,V2,-----Vn.
Output: A spanning tree T for G.
Method:
1.(Visit a vertex) Let V1 be the root of T, and set L=V1.(The name ‘L’
stands for the vertex last visited).
2.(Find an unexamined edge and an unvisited vertex adjacent to
L) For all vertices adjacent to L, Choose the edge {L,Vk}, where k is the
minimum index such that adding {L,Vk}to T does not create a cycle. If no
such edge exists, go to step3;otherwise,add edge {L,Vk}, to T and set L=Vk;
repeat step2 at the new value for L.
3.(Backtrack or Terminate) If x is the parent of L in T, set L=x and
apply step2 at the new value of L. If, on the other hand, L has no parent in
T(so that L=V1) then the DFS terminates and T is a spanning tree for G.

Ch10-24
 DFS Example:
a d f i j
e
h
b c g k
a d
a a f
a d a d

c e
b
b b c b c b
c e i
j
a d f a d f
a d f h
h
k
b e b c e c e
c g g b g

Ch10-25
DFS:
Tree edges: The edges selected by DFS of a graph.
Back edges: The edges which are rejected in the DFS.

Example:

The tree edges (red)

and back edges (black)
Find the BFS and DFS for the following graphs:

a b c d

e f g

Ch10-27
Minimal Spanning Trees
Let G be the graph of all possible links between the cities with the non negative
cost of construction C(e) assigned to each edge e in G. Then if H is any sub
graph of G with edges e1,e2----,em the total cost of constructing the network H is
C(H)=Σi=1 to m C(ei).
A spanning tree T where C(T) is minimal is called a minimal spanning tree of G.

There are two methods to construct a minimum cost spanning tree

1.Kruskal’s algorithm
2.Prim’s algorithm

Kruskal’s algorithm is an example of a Greedy algorithm that does, lead

to an optimal solution.
Weighted Graph:
It is a graph in which each edge is given a numerical weight.
The weight of an edge is often referred to as the "cost" of the
edge.

Ch10-29
Kruskal’s Algorithm for finding Minimum Cost
Spanning Tree
Input: A connected graph G with non negative values assigned to each edge.
Output: A minimum cost spanning tree for G.
Method:
1.Select any edge of minimal value that is not a loop. This is the first edge of
T.(If there is more than one edge of minimal value, arbitrarily choose one of
these edges).
2.Select any remaining edge of G having minimal value that does not form a
circuit with the edges already included in T.
3.Continue step2 until T contains n-1 edges, where n is the number of vertices
of G.

Ch10-30
 Q) For the given graph, find the minimum cost spanning tree using Kruskal’s
algorithm.
Collect the lengths of edges in ascending order.
Edge Cost
{b,c} 3 Add the first edge in
a 15 b {d,f} 4 the spanning tree with
{a,g} 5 the least cost
5 15 3
5 {c,d} 5 a 15 b
g d c {c,e} 5
15 18 4 5 {a,b} 15 5
3
h {a,d} 15 g 5
15 f e {f,h} 15
15 c
{g,h} 15 d
{e,f} 15 4 5
{f,g} 18
h 15 f e

The minimum cost for the construction of the spanning tree is = 3+4+5+5+5+15+15
= 52

Ch10-31
Example: Use Kruskal’s algorithm to find a minimum
spanning tree of G.

Sol.

The minimum cost for the construction of the spanning tree is=24
Find the minimum cost spanning tree for the following
graphs using Kruskal’s algorithm

Ch10-33
 Prim’s Algorithm

Prim(G: connected weighted undirected graph with n vertices)

T := a minimum-weight edge
for i := 1 to n2
begin
e := an edge of minimum weight incident to a vertex in T and not
forming a simple circuit in T if added to T
T := T with e added
end {T is a minimum spanning tree of G}

Ch10-34
 Prim’s Algorithm
Example:

a b
a 15 b
5 15 3
5 15 3 g
5 d c
g c
d 5
15 18 4 5 15 4
h e h e
15 f 15 f 15

The minimum cost for the construction of the spanning tree is=3+5+15+4+15+5+15
= 62

Ch10-35
Example Use Prim’s algorithm to find a minimum
spanning tree of G.

Sol.

The minimum cost for the construction of the spanning tree is=24