Chapter 12

■ Design Concepts
Slide Set to accompany
Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 8/e
by Roger S. Pressman and Bruce R. Maxim

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Design
■ Mitch Kapor, the creator of Lotus 1-2-3, presented a
“software design manifesto” in Dr. Dobbs Journal.
He said:
■ Good software design should exhibit:
■ Firmness: A program should not have any bugs that
inhibit its function.
■ Commodity: A program should be suitable for the
purposes for which it was intended.
■ Delight: The experience of using the program should be
pleasurable one.

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Software Design
■ Encompasses the set of principles, concepts, and
practices that lead to the development of a high
quality system or product
■ Design principles establish and overriding
philosophy that guides the designer as the work is
performed
■ Design concepts must be understood before the
mechanics of design practice are applied
■ Software design practices change continuously as
new methods, better analysis, and broader
understanding evolve
.
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Software Engineering Design
■ Data/Class design – transforms analysis classes into
implementation classes and data structures
■ Architectural design – defines relationships among
the major software structural elements
■ Interface design – defines how software elements,
hardware elements, and end-users communicate
■ Component-level design – transforms structural
elements into procedural descriptions of software
components

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Analysis Model -> Design Model

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Design and Quality
■ the design must implement all of the explicit
requirements contained in the analysis model, and it
must accommodate all of the implicit requirements
desired by the customer.
■ the design must be a readable, understandable guide
for those who generate code and for those who test
and subsequently support the software.
■ the design should provide a complete picture of the
software, addressing the data, functional, and
behavioral domains from an implementation
perspective.

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Quality Guidelines
■ A design should exhibit an architecture that (1) has been created using recognizable
architectural styles or patterns, (2) is composed of components that exhibit good
design characteristics and (3) can be implemented in an evolutionary fashion
■ A design should be modular; that is, the software should be logically partitioned into
elements or subsystems
■ A design should contain distinct representations of data, architecture, interfaces, and
components.
■ A design should lead to data structures that are appropriate for the classes to be
implemented and are drawn from recognizable data patterns.
■ A design should lead to components that exhibit independent functional
characteristics.
■ A design should lead to interfaces that reduce the complexity of connections between
components and with the external environment.
■ A design should be derived using a repeatable method that is driven by information
obtained during software requirements analysis.
■ A design should be represented using a notation that effectively communicates its
meaning.

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 Design Principles

■ The design process should not suffer from ‘tunnel vision.’

■ The design should be traceable to the analysis model.
■ The design should not reinvent the wheel.
■ The design should “minimize the intellectual distance” [DAV95] between the
software and the problem as it exists in the real world.
■ The design should exhibit uniformity and integration.
■ The design should be structured to accommodate change.
■ The design should be structured to degrade gently, even when aberrant data,
events, or operating conditions are encountered.
■ Design is not coding, coding is not design.
■ The design should be assessed for quality as it is being created, not after the fact.
■ The design should be reviewed to minimize conceptual (semantic) errors.

From Davis [DAV95]

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 Fundamental Concepts

■ Abstraction—data, procedure, control

■ Architecture—the overall structure of the software
■ Patterns—”conveys the essence” of a proven design solution
■ Separation of concerns—any complex problem can be more easily
handled if it is subdivided into pieces
■ Modularity—compartmentalization of data and function
■ Hiding—controlled interfaces
■ Functional independence—single-minded function and low coupling
■ Refinement—elaboration of detail for all abstractions
■ Aspects—a mechanism for understanding how global requirements affect
design
■ Refactoring—a reorganization technique that simplifies the design
■ OO design concepts—Appendix II
■ Design Classes—provide design detail that will enable analysis
classes to be implemented

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 Data Abstraction

door

manufacturer
model number
type
swing direction
inserts
lights
type
number
weight
opening mechanism

implemented as a data structure

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Procedural Abstraction
open

details of enter
algorithm

implemented with a "knowledge" of the

object that is associated with enter

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Architecture
“The overall structure of the software and the ways in which
that structure provides conceptual integrity for a system.”
[SHA95a]
Structural properties. This aspect of the architectural design representation
defines the components of a system (e.g., modules, objects, filters) and the
manner in which those components are packaged and interact with one another.
For example, objects are packaged to encapsulate both data and the processing
that manipulates the data and interact via the invocation of methods
Extra-functional properties. The architectural design description should
address how the design architecture achieves requirements for performance,
capacity, reliability, security, adaptability, and other system characteristics.
Families of related systems. The architectural design should draw upon
repeatable patterns that are commonly encountered in the design of families of
similar systems. In essence, the design should have the ability to reuse
architectural building blocks.

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Patterns
Design Pattern Template
Pattern name—describes the essence of the pattern in a short but
expressive name
Intent—describes the pattern and what it does
Also-known-as—lists any synonyms for the pattern
Motivation—provides an example of the problem
Applicability—notes specific design situations in which the pattern is
applicable
Structure—describes the classes that are required to implement the
pattern
Participants—describes the responsibilities of the classes that are
required to implement the pattern
Collaborations—describes how the participants collaborate to carry out
their responsibilities
Consequences—describes the “design forces” that affect the pattern and
the potential trade-offs that must be considered when the pattern is
implemented
Related patterns—cross-references related design patterns

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Separation of Concerns
■ Any complex problem can be more easily handled
if it is subdivided into pieces that can each be
solved and/or optimized independently
■ A concern is a feature or behavior that is specified
as part of the requirements model for the software
■ By separating concerns into smaller, and therefore
more manageable pieces, a problem takes less effort
and time to solve.

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Modularity
■ "modularity is the single attribute of software that allows a
program to be intellectually manageable" [Mye78].
■ Monolithic software (i.e., a large program composed of a
single module) cannot be easily grasped by a software
engineer.
■ The number of control paths, span of reference, number of
variables, and overall complexity would make understanding
close to impossible.
■ In almost all instances, you should break the design into many
modules, hoping to make understanding easier and as a
consequence, reduce the cost required to build the software.

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Modularity: Trade-offs

What is the "right" number of modules

for a specific software design?
module development cost

cost of
software

module
integration
cost

optimal number number of modules

of modules
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Information Hiding
module
• algorithm
controlled
interface • data structure

• details of external interface

• resource allocation policy

clients
"secret"

a specific design decision

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Why Information Hiding?
■ reduces the likelihood of “side effects”
■ limits the global impact of local design
decisions
■ emphasizes communication through controlled
interfaces
■ discourages the use of global data
■ leads to encapsulation—an attribute of high
quality design
■ results in higher quality software

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 Stepwise Refinement

open

walk to door;
reach for knob;

open door; repeat until door opens

turn knob clockwise;
walk through; if knob doesn't turn, then
close door. take key out;
find correct key;
insert in lock;
endif
pull/push door
move out of way;
end repeat

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Sizing Modules: Two Views

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Functional Independence
■ Functional independence is achieved by developing modules
with "single-minded" function and an "aversion" to excessive
interaction with other modules.
■ Cohesion is an indication of the relative functional strength of
a module.
■ A cohesive module performs a single task, requiring little
interaction with other components in other parts of a program.
Stated simply, a cohesive module should (ideally) do just one
thing.
■ Coupling is an indication of the relative interdependence
among modules.
■ Coupling depends on the interface complexity between modules,
the point at which entry or reference is made to a module, and
what data pass across the interface.

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Aspects
■ Consider two requirements, A and B. Requirement
A crosscuts requirement B “if a software
decomposition [refinement] has been chosen in
which B cannot be satisfied without taking A into
account. [Ros04]
■ An aspect is a representation of a cross-cutting
concern.

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Aspects—An Example
■ Consider two requirements for the SafeHomeAssured.com WebApp.
Requirement A is described via the use-case Access camera surveillance
via the Internet. A design refinement would focus on those modules that
would enable a registered user to access video from cameras placed
throughout a space. Requirement B is a generic security requirement that
states that a registered user must be validated prior to using
SafeHomeAssured.com. This requirement is applicable for all functions
that are available to registered SafeHome users. As design refinement occurs,
A* is a design representation for requirement A and B* is a design
representation for requirement B. Therefore, A* and B* are representations of
concerns, and B* cross-cuts A*.
■ An aspect is a representation of a cross-cutting concern. Therefore, the design
representation, B*, of the requirement, a registered user must be validated
prior to using SafeHomeAssured.com, is an aspect of the SafeHome
WebApp.

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 Refactoring
■ Fowler [FOW99] defines refactoring in the following manner:
■ "Refactoring is the process of changing a software system in such a
way that it does not alter the external behavior of the code [design] yet
improves its internal structure.”
■ When software is refactored, the existing design is examined for
■ redundancy
■ unused design elements
■ inefficient or unnecessary algorithms
■ poorly constructed or inappropriate data structures
■ or any other design failure that can be corrected to yield a better design.

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OO Design Concepts
■ Design classes
■ Entity classes
■ Boundary classes
■ Controller classes
■ Inheritance—all responsibilities of a superclass is immediately
inherited by all subclasses
■ Messages—stimulate some behavior to occur in the receiving
object
■ Polymorphism—a characteristic that greatly reduces the effort
required to extend the design

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 Design Classes
■ Analysis classes are refined during design to become entity classes
■ Boundary classes are developed during design to create the interface
(e.g., interactive screen or printed reports) that the user sees and
interacts with as the software is used.
■ Boundary classes are designed with the responsibility of managing the way
entity objects are represented to users.
■ Controller classes are designed to manage
■ the creation or update of entity objects;
■ the instantiation of boundary objects as they obtain information from entity
objects;
■ complex communication between sets of objects;
■ validation of data communicated between objects or between the user and
the application.

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Design Class Characteristics
■ Complete - includes all necessary attributes and methods) and
sufficient (contains only those methods needed to achieve class
intent)
■ Primitiveness – each class method focuses on providing one
service
■ High cohesion – small, focused, single-minded classes
■ Low coupling – class collaboration kept to minimum

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The Design Model

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Design Model Elements
■ Data elements
■ Data model --> data structures
■ Data model --> database architecture
■ Architectural elements
■ Application domain
■ Analysis classes, their relationships, collaborations and behaviors are
transformed into design realizations
■ Patterns and “styles” (Chapters 9 and 12)
■ Interface elements
■ the user interface (UI)
■ external interfaces to other systems, devices, networks or other producers or
consumers of information
■ internal interfaces between various design components.
■ Component elements
■ Deployment elements

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Data Modeling
■ examines data objects independently of
processing
■ focuses attention on the data domain
■ creates a model at the customer’s level of
abstraction
■ indicates how data objects relate to one
another

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What is a Data Object?
■ a representation of almost any composite information that
must be understood by software.
■ composite information—something that has a number of different
properties or attributes
■ can be an external entity (e.g., anything that produces or
consumes information), a thing (e.g., a report or a display), an
occurrence (e.g., a telephone call) or event (e.g., an alarm), a
role (e.g., salesperson), an organizational unit (e.g.,
accounting department), a place (e.g., a warehouse), or a
structure (e.g., a file).
■ The description of the data object incorporates the data object
and all of its attributes.
■ A data object encapsulates data only—there is no reference
within a data object to operations that act on the data.

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Data Objects and Attributes
A data object contains a set of attributes that act as an
aspect, quality, characteristic, or descriptor of the object

object: automobile
attributes:
make
model
body type
price
options code

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What is a Relationship?
■ Data objects are connected to one another in
different ways.
■ A connection is established between person and car
because the two objects are related.
• A person owns a car
• A person is insured to drive a car
■ The relationships owns and insured to drive
define the relevant connections between
person and car.
■ Several instances of a relationship can exist
■ Objects can be related in many different ways

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Architectural Elements
■ The architectural model [Sha96] is derived from
three sources:
■ information about the application domain for the software
to be built;
■ specific requirements model elements such as data flow
diagrams or analysis classes, their relationships and
collaborations for the problem at hand, and
■ the availability of architectural patterns (Chapter 16) and
styles (Chapter 13).

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Interface Elements
■ Interface is a set of operations that describes the
externally observable behavior of a class and
provides access to its public operations
■ Important elements
■ User interface (UI)
■ External interfaces to other systems
■ Internal interfaces between various design components
■ Modeled using UML communication diagrams
(called collaboration diagrams in UML 1.x)

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Interface Elements

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Component Elements
■ Describes the internal detail of each software
component
■ Defines
■ Data structures for all local data objects
■ Algorithmic detail for all component processing functions
■ Interface that allows access to all component operations
■ Modeled using UML component diagrams, UML
activity diagrams, pseudocode (PDL), and
sometimes flowcharts

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Component Elements

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Deployment Elements
■ Indicates how software functionality and
subsystems will be allocated within the physical
computing environment
■ Modeled using UML deployment diagrams
■ Descriptor form deployment diagrams show the
computing environment but does not indicate
configuration details
■ Instance form deployment diagrams identifying
specific named hardware configurations are
developed during the latter stages of design

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Deployment Elements

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