Descriptive Method

a. Most commonly used

b. Data collected describe existing
conditions
c. Purpose is to describe “what is”
about the variable under consideration
d. Used for status trend studies or those dealing with
prevailing conditions of objects or people
 Descriptive Method
Types:
1. Case study
2. Survey
3. Assessment/evaluation study
4. Normative study
5. Analytical study
6. Comparative study
7. Correlational study
8. Developmental study
9. Trend/predictive study
10 Observational study
 Descriptive Method

Case study
a. Few participants
b. Usually used in medical/health researches
c. Detailed description of the subject
(person, event, disease, institution)
E.g. A case study of Kawasaki disease
Characteristics of fraternal twins: A case study
A case presentation of non-Hodgskin’s lymphoma
lymphocytic type
 Descriptive Method

Advantages of Case Study

1. Provides detailed description of the subject
2. More detailed information about
the subject is obtained
3. Provides new insights, helps modify
existing beliefs on a micro level
4. Uses less Ho testing but results do
not lend to generalizations or inferences
 Descriptive Method

Limitations of case study

1. Tendency of using CS to select convenient cases
2. Can not test Ho statistically due to small size
3. Difficult to determine factors relevant to
phenomenon under study because of
small sample size
4. Various assumptions needed due to
sample size and limited number of variables
 Descriptive Method

Steps followed in CS design

1. Identify problem
2. Set objectives
3. Identify unit (group of persons,
disease, health agency, a new drug)
4. Determine sources of data
5. Determine procedure
6. Collation, analysis, interpretation of data
 Descriptive Method

Survey
1. Used for a large number of cases
2. Data are gathered from representative sample
3. Sample survey – sample is used
Census – entire population
4. Data generated through
questionnaires, interviews
observations
 Descriptive Method

Types of Survey
1. Descriptive
a. Data gathered through
interviews, questionnaires, observations
2. Descriptive normative
a. Uses standardized instruments (mental ability
test, stress questionnaires, job satisfaction
standardized questionnaires
b. With established norms
 Descriptive Method

Examples:
1. Attitudes of MDs on the use of
drugs in the treatment of DM
2. Stress management among nurse
supervisors in large community hospital
3. Relationship between job satisfaction and attitudes
of OTs working in private hospitals
4. Stress management among MT supervisors in a
government hospital
 Descriptive Method

Limitations of Survey Studies

1. Low returns of questionnaires
2. Assertions in the questionnaire may be not correct
3. Instruments prepared by researcher may not be
enough to gather data
 Descriptive Method
Assessment/Evaluation Study
a. Effectiveness/efficiency of practices, policies,
instruments, other variables
b. Assessments based on impressions of
respondent (more subjective than results
taken from an instrument)

E.g. Use of US in the determination of sex of babies: An

assessment.

Epidemiological characteristics and assessment of bedside

clinical diagnosis
 Descriptive Method

Narrative Study
a. Simply tells results of the study
b. No comparative nor correlational
analysis made
E.g. Impression of college students on AIDS
Use of a certain drug in the cure of CA
 Descriptive Method

Comparative Study
a. Compare characteristics of groups
according to selected variables
b. Determines differences without
determining the cause
E.g. Hemorrhagic and non hemorrhagic stroke:
Epidemiological characteristics of bedside clinical
diagnosis
Sexual maturity in asthmatic and non-asthmatic
adolescents
 Descriptive Method

Advantages of Comparative Study

1. Not labor intensive; results can be seen easily
2. Variables selected based on what subjects have
3. Intervening variables are easily discernible;
comparative results seen immediately
E.g. Hemorrhagic and non-hemorrhagic stroke:
Epidemiological characteristics of bedside clinical
diagnosis
Intervening V = EC like HTN, gender, DM, life style
Independent samples = asthmatic and non-asthmatic
 Descriptive Method

Sexual maturity in asthmatic and non-asthmatic adolescents

Intervening V = characteristics of sexual maturity
Independent samples = asthmatic and non-asthmatic
adolescents
Limitations of Comparative Study
1. Limited findings; if there is difference
it is not answered
2. Limited selection of variables
3. Not easy to get samples that are conformable
 Descriptive Method

Correlational Study
a.Determines extent of relationship between variables
b. Correlation coefficient indicates magnitude of
relationship
c. Can ascertain that variation in one variable is
associated with variation in the other
d. Two variables considered
1. X var of independent V = predictor
2. Y var or criterion measure
 Descriptive Method

Classification of Correlational Study

1. Retrospective
a. Investigates data collected in the past
2. Prospective
a. Record and investigate present data
3. Descriptive
a. Investigates several variables at once;
determines existing relationships among variables
4. Predictive
a. Used to develop predictive models
 Descriptive Method

Examples of Correlational Study

1. Relationship between age and hemorrhagic stroke
2. Relationship between hygiene practices and severe
diarrhea
3. Relationship between time and use of drug for
reducing fever
Independent var = time
Dependent var = reduction of fever
 Descriptive Method

Advantages of Correlational Studies

1. Easy to identify var & generate data
2. Method easily identifiable
3. Generates more information when
used with regression analysis
4. Best regression equation can be
determined when independent var are combined
 Descriptive Method

Developmental Study
a. Investigates patterns &
sequences of growth as a function of time
E.g. Longitudinal growth study ff. an initial sample of
200 children from 6 mos old to adulthood
Cross sectional growth study on changing patterns
of intelligence by sampling groups of children of 10
different age levels
 Descriptive Method

Trends and Projective Study

a. Used to project demands that
will be made in the future
b. Can predict behavior of some var
provided factors remain constant
c. Y var can be predicted by X var (independent var)
like in correlational study
E.g. Forecasting sales of beverages in Metro Manila
Determining housing projects by the year 2050
 Descriptive Method

Advantages of Trend Study

1. Easy to generate data
2. Factors for projections remain
constant and are assumed
3. Helps estimate & predict future information
4. More reliable with short term projects
Limitations of Trend Study
1. Greater probable error of projection
2. Data may be insufficient
 Description Method

Observational Study
a. Associated with behavioral study
b. Useful in gathering information
concerning aspects of objects or specimens
c. Observer must know what to look for
d. Observer must be able to distinguish between
significant and insignificant aspects of a situation
e. Objectivity is essential
 Descriptive Method

Types of Observational Study

1. Naturalistic observation
a. Watching & describing behavior
as it occurs in natural setting
b. No attempt is done to
manipulate behavior
Descriptive Method
 Descriptive Method

2. Participant observation
a. Researcher becomes actively
involved in the lives of people
being observed
b. Researcher may affect
behavior of people being
observed
 Descriptive Method

Ex Post Facto Research

a. Means “after the fact”
b. AKA causal-comparative study
c. Investigates cause & effect relationship by
observing existing consequence & checking the
data for possible causal factors
d. Researcher does not have control on independent
V because its manifestation has already occurred
 Descriptive Study

E.g. Ex post facto research

1. Difference in hearing among smokers and non
-smokers
2. Difference among diagnosed compliant and non-
compliant patients
 Descriptive Method

Advantages of Ex Post Facto Research

1. Gives information on differences of
some variables among subjects
2. Convenient since statistical technique
are definite on comparative analysis
Limitations of Ex Post Facto Research
1. There is selective manipulation of variables
2. Most are field researches – large amount of effort is
used to generate data
 Descriptive Method

Analytical Study
a. Designed to teach Ho & determine
relationships or differences
b. Classified as:
1. Observational study
2. Experimental study
Observational study
a. Used to test relationship without
manipulation of study factors
 Descriptive Method

Three strategies of Observational Study

1. Cross sectional study
a. Rates prevalence of independent V (cause) to
prevalence of dependent V (effect)
b. Has its population from a
special geographical sector
c. Data analysis = computation of proportion or
prevalence of subject & outcomes among those
with & without the factor
 Descriptive Method

2. Case control study

a. Compares freq of ind V on those
which have not affected the dep V
b. Concerned with people from
community or health care facility
c. Utilizes samples classified according to
data collection
d. Statistical analysis = freq of factors, odd ratio,
sensitivity & specificity tests
 Descriptive Method

3. Cohort study
a . Compares occurrence of dep V
between those with & without
ind V (cause)
b. Population = sick & healthy
c. Statistics consider recurrence of outcomes, relative
risk, attributable risk, test of significance