Chapter 2

Atoms, Molecules &

Ions
2.1 The Atomic Theory
of Matter
Atomic Theory of Matter

The theory that atoms are the fundamental building

blocks of matter reemerged in the early 19th century,
championed by John Dalton.
Dalton's Postulates

Each element is composed of extremely small

particles called atoms.
Dalton's Postulates
All atoms of a given element are identical to one
another in mass and other properties, but the atoms
of one element are different from the atoms of all
other elements.
Dalton's Postulates
Atoms of an element are not
changed into atoms of a different
element by chemical reactions;
atoms are neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reactions.
Dalton’s Postulates
Compounds are formed when atoms of
more than one element combine; a given
compound always has the same relative
number and kind of atoms.
 Law of Constant Composition
Joseph Proust (1754–1826)

 This is also known as the law of definite

proportions.
 It states that the elemental composition of a
pure substance never varies.
Law of Conservation of Mass
The total mass of substances present at the
end of a chemical process is the same as the
mass of substances present before the
process took place.
p.39 GIST
 One compound of carbon and oxygen
contains 1.333 g of oxygen per gram of
carbon, whereas a second compound
contains 2.666 g of oxygen per gram of
carbon.
 A) What chemical law do these data illustrate?
 B) If the first compound has an equal number of
oxygen and carbon atoms, what can we conclude
about the composition of the second compound?
2.2 The Discovery of
Atomic Structure
The Electron

 Streams of negatively charged particles were

found to emanate from cathode tubes.
 J. J. Thompson is credited with their discovery
(1897).
The Electron

Thompson measured the charge/mass ratio of the

electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/g.
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Once the charge/mass

ratio of the electron was
known, determination of
either the charge or the
mass of an electron
would yield the other.
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Robert Millikan
(University of Chicago)
determined the charge
on the electron in 1909.
Radioactivity
 Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of
radiation by an atom.
 It was first observed by Henri Becquerel.
 Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.
Radioactivity
 Three types of radiation were discovered by
Ernest Rutherford:
  particles
  particles
  rays
The Atom, circa 1900

 The prevailing theory was

that of the “plum pudding”
model, put forward by
Thompson.
 It featured a positive
sphere of matter with
negative electrons
imbedded in it.
Discovery of the Nucleus
Ernest Rutherford shot
 particles at a thin
sheet of gold foil and
observed the pattern of
scatter of the particles.
The Nuclear Atom
Since some particles
were deflected at large
angles, Thompson’s
model could not be
correct.
The Nuclear Atom
 Rutherford postulated a very small, dense
nucleus with the electrons around the
outside of the atom.
 Most of the volume of the atom is empty
space.
2.3 The Modern View
of Atomic Structure
Other Subatomic Particles
 Protons were discovered by Rutherford in
1919.
 Neutrons were discovered by James
Chadwick in 1932.
Subatomic Particles
 Protons and electrons are the only particles that
have a charge.
 Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass.
 The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
Sample Exercise 2.1
 The diameter of a US penny is 19 mm. The
diameter of a silver atom, by comparison, is
only 2.88 Å. How many silver atoms could be
arranged side by side in a straight line across
the diameter of a penny?
 The diameter of a carbon atom is 1.54 Å.
Express this diameter in picometers. How
many carbon atoms could be aligned side by
side in a straight line across the width of a
pencil line that is 0.20 mm wide?
Symbols of Elements

Elements are symbolized by one or two letters.

Atomic Number

All atoms of the same element have the same

number of protons:
The atomic number (Z)
Atomic Mass

The mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu) is

the total number of protons and neutrons in the
atom.
Isotopes
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different
masses.
 Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

11 12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C 6 C
Sample Exercise 2.2
 How many protons, neutrons, and
electrons are in:
 A) an atom of 197Au?

 B) an atom of strontium-90?

 C) a 138Ba atom?

 D) an atom of phosphorus-31?
Sample Exercise 2.3
 Magnesium has three isotopes, with mass
numbers 24, 25, and 26. Write the complete
chemical symbol for each of them. How
many neutrons are in an atom of each
isotope?
 Give the complete chemical symbol for the
atom that contains 82 protons, 82 electrons
and 126 neutrons.
2.4 Atomic Weights
Atomic Mass

Atomic and molecular

masses can be
measured with great
accuracy with a mass
spectrometer.
Average Mass
 Because in the real world we use large
amounts of atoms and molecules, we use
average masses in calculations.
 Average mass is calculated from the isotopes
of an element weighted by their relative
abundances.
p.47 GIST
 A particular atom of chromium has a mass of
52.94 amu, whereas the atomic weight of
chromium is 51.99 amu. Explain the
difference in the two masses.
Sample Exercise 2.4
 Naturally occuring chlorine is 75.78% 35Cl,
which has an atomic mass of 34.969 amu,
and 24.22% 37Cl, which has an atomic mass
of 36.966 amu. Calculate the average atomic
mass of chlorine.
Average Atomic Mass Practice
 Three isotopes of silicon occur in nature: 28Si
(92.23%), which has an atomic mass of
27.97693 amu; 29Si (4.68%), which has an
atomic mass of 28.97649 amu; and 30Si
(3.09%) which has an atomic mass of
29.97377 amu. Calculate the atomic weight
of silicon.
2.5 The Periodic Table
Periodic Table

 It is a systematic
catalog of the
elements.
 Elements are
arranged in order of
atomic number.
Periodicity

When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.
 Periodic Table
 The rows on the
periodic chart are
periods.
 Columns are groups.
 Elements in the same
group have similar
chemical properties.
Groups

These five groups are known by their names.

Periodic Table

Nonmetals are
on the right side
of the periodic
table (with the
exception of H).
Periodic Table

Metalloids
border the
stair-step line
(with the
exception of
Al, Po, and
At).
Periodic Table

Metals are on
the left side of
the chart.
p.51 GIST
 Chlorine is a halogen. Locate this element
on the periodic table.
 A) What is its symbol?
 B) In what period and in what group is the
element located?
 C) What is its atomic number?
 D) Is it a metal, nonmetal or metalloid?
Sample Exercise 2.5
 Which of the following elements would you
expect to show the greatest similarity in
chemical and physical properties: B, Ca, F,
He, Mg, P?
 Locate Na and Br on the periodic table. Give
the atomic number of each, and label each as
a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal.
 2.6 Molecules and
Molecular Compounds
Chemical Formulas
The subscript to the right of
the symbol of an element
tells the number of atoms
of that element in one
molecule of the compound.
Chemical Formulas
Molecular compounds are
composed of molecules
and almost always contain
only nonmetals.
Diatomic Molecules

These seven elements occur naturally as molecules

containing two atoms.
Types of Formulas
 Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-
number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.
 Molecular formulas give the exact number of
atoms of each element in a compound.
Empirical and Molecular
Formula Practice
 Write the empirical formula for:
 A) glucose (C6H12O6)
 B) nitrous oxide (laughing gas, N2O)
 C) diborane (B2H6)
Types of Formulas
 Structural formulas show the
order in which atoms are
bonded.
 Perspective drawings also show
the three-dimensional array of
atoms in a compound.
p.54 GIST
 The structural formula for ethane is shown here:

 A) What is the molecular formula for ethane?

 B) What is its empirical formula?
 C) What kind of molecular model would most
clearly show the angles between atoms?
2.7 Ions and Ionic
Compounds
Ions

 When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become

ions.
 Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the
left side of the periodic chart.
 Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the
right side of the periodic chart.
Ion Symbols Practice
 Give the chemical symbol for:
 A) Ion with 22 protons, 26 neutrons, and 19
electrons
 B) Ion of sulfur that has 16 neutrons and 18
electrons
 How many protons, neutrons and electrons
does the 79Se2- ion have?
Sample Exercise 2.8
 Predict the charge for the most stable ion of
barium and for the most stable ion of oxygen.
 Predict the charge for the most stable ion of
aluminum and of fluorine.
Ionic Bonds
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally
formed between metals and nonmetals.
Ionic or molecular
compounds?
 CBr4
 FeS
 P4O6
 PbF2
 N2O
 Na2O
 CaCl2
 SF4
Writing Formulas

 Because compounds are electrically neutral, one

can determine the formula of a compound this
way:
 The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the
anion.
 The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the
cation.
 If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-number
ratio, divide them by the greatest common factor.
Ionic Formulas Practice
 Write formulas for the following ions:
 Na+ and PO43-
 Zn2+ and SO42-
 Fe3+ and CO32-
 Al3+ and Cl-
 Al3+ and O2-
 Mg2+ and NO3-
2.8 Naming Inorganic
Compounds
Common Cations
Common Anions
Inorganic Nomenclature
 Write the name of the cation.
 If the anion is an element, change its
ending to -ide; if the anion is a polyatomic
ion, simply write the name of the
polyatomic ion.
 If the cation can have more than one
possible charge, write the charge as a
Roman numeral in parentheses.
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
 When there are two oxyanions involving the
same element:
 The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
 NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
 The one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
 NO3− : nitrate; SO42− : sulfate
 Patterns in Oxyanion
Nomenclature
 The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite.
– ClO2− : chlorite

 The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate.

– ClO3− : chlorate
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
 The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo- and
ends in -ite.
– ClO− : hypochlorite

 The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in -ate.
– ClO4− : perchlorate
p. 62
 GIST: Predict the formulas for the borate ion
and silicate ion.
 SE 2.11: Based on the formula for the sulfate
ion, predict the formula for the selenate ion
and the selenite ion.
 PE: The formula for the bromate ion is
analogous to that for the chlorate ion. Write
the formula for the hypobromite and
perbromate ions.
Sample Exercises 2.12 & 2.13
 Name the following compounds:
 A) K2SO4
 B) Ba(OH)2
 C) FeCl3
 Write the chemical formulas for the following
compounds:
 A) potassium sulfide
 B) calcium hydrogen carbonate
 C) nickel (II) perchlorate
Ionic Names and Formulas
Practice
 Name the following:
 NH4Br
 Cr2O3
 Co(NO3)2
 Write formulas for:
 Magnesium sulfate
 Silver sulfide
 Lead (II) nitrate
Acid Nomenclature
 If the anion in the acid
ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
and add the prefix
hydro- .
 HCl: hydrochloric acid
 HBr: hydrobromic acid
 HI: hydroiodic acid
Acid Nomenclature
 If the anion in the acid
ends in -ite, change the
ending to -ous acid.
 HClO: hypochlorous acid
 HClO2: chlorous acid
Acid Nomenclature
 If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
 HClO3: chloric acid
 HClO4: perchloric acid
Acid Nomenclature Practice
 Name the following acids:
 HCN
 HNO3
 H2SO4
 H2SO3
 Write formulas for the following acids:
 Hydrobromic acid
 Carbonic acid
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds

 The less electronegative

atom is usually listed first.
 A prefix is used to denote
the number of atoms of
each element in the
compound (mono- is not
used on the first element
listed, however) .
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds

 The ending on the more

electronegative element is
changed to -ide.

 CO2: carbon dioxide

 CCl4: carbon tetrachloride
Nomenclature of Binary
Compounds

 If the prefix ends with a or

o and the name of the
element begins with a
vowel, the two successive
vowels are often elided
into one.

N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide

Molecular Compound
Nomenclature Practice
 Name the following compounds
 SO2
 PCl5
 N2O3
 Write the chemical formula for:
 Silicon tetrabromide
 Disulfur dichloride
 2.9 Some Simple
Organic Compounds
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds

 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon.

 Organic chemistry has its own system of
nomenclature.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds

The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds

containing only carbon and hydrogen) are
alkanes.
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds

The first part of the names above correspond to

the number of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop-
= 3, etc.).
Nomenclature of Organic
Compounds

 When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with

something else (a functional group, like -OH in the
compounds above), the name is derived from the
name of the alkane.
 The ending denotes the type of compound.
 An alcohol ends in -ol.
Organic Nomenclature
Practice
 What is the structural formula for pentane?
What is its molecular formula?
 Write a structural formula for hexane. What
is its molecular formula?
 What is the molecular formula for butane?
What is the name and molecular formula of
an alcohol derived from butane?