Contents:

• Base Band and Carrier Communication

• Introduction to AM
• Equation of AM
• Generation of AM (DSFBC) and its spectrum
• Modulation Index
• Power relations applied to sinusoidal signals
• DSBSC multiplier modulator
• Non-linear generations
• Switching Modulator
• Ring Modulator and its spectrum
• SSBSC, ISB and VSB their generation methods and comparison
• AM broadcast technical standards

2
Introduction
• Communication deals with the principle of transferring information from one
place to another.
• It involves transmission and reception, and processing of information between
these two locations.
• The source could be in continuous form as in the case of analog
communication and as discrete signals as in the case of digital communication.
• Short distance transmission of information is called baseband transmission.
• For long distance transmission, information has to be impressed upon an high
frequency component to be able to reach the reception end of communication.

3
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
• Range of frequencies contained in a signal is its bandwidth.
• Bandwidth is the amount of the frequency spectrum occupied by a signal regardless of where it is
in the spectrum.
• It is the difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal.
• If a signal occupies the range of frequencies between approximately 300 Hz and 3000 Hz.
• The following figure demonstrates that for that signal, it’s bandwidth would be 2700 Hz.

4
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
• Most precious resource in communications is “frequency spectrum”
• The “frequency spectrum” has to be shared by a large number of users and
applications.
• The frequency spectrum has to be managed for a particular physical medium
• The spectrum for “over-the-air” communications is allocated by international
communications organization “International Telecommunications Union (ITU)”
• Federal Communications Commission (FCC) designates and licenses frequency bands.
• Allocates bands of frequencies for specific uses
• Sets limitations on broadcast power
• Monitors broadcasts to detect unlicensed operations and technical violations
• Auctions spectrum usage

5
FCC (contd…)
Typical bandwidths:
• AM Radio Station – 10 kHz
• FM Radio Station – 180 kHz
• Broadcast TV Station – 6 MHz

6
Classification
Data Flow based classification of communication:
• Simplex: Signals transmitted in one direction. Only one of two devices on a link can transmit.
Examples of simplex devices are keyboards and televisions. Remember that a keyboard is an
example of an input device. It cannot accept any outputs. Similarly, your television (before smart
TV!) does not transmit any information back to the cable company. The simplex mode can used
the entire capacity of a communications channel to send data in one direction.
• Half Duplex: Both stations may transmit, but not at the same time. Military Radios are an
example of duplex devices. Half duplex mode works in cases where there is no need for
communication at the same time and the entire capacity of the channel can be used in one
direction at a time.
• Full Duplex: In full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. One
common example of full duplex communication is the telephones network. Both users can talk
and listen at the same time however the capacity of the channel but must be divided in the two
directions.

7
Classification (contd…)
Two basic modes of communication:
• Broadcasting: It is a method of transferring a message to all recipients
simultaneously. A single powerful transmitter transmits to multiple receivers.
Information bearing signal flow only in one direction.
• Point to point communication: Communication process takes place over a
link between a single transmitter and receiver. Here, it is bidirectional flow of
information bearing signals, which requires the use of transmitter and receiver
at each end of the link.

8
Types of signal
• Analog or Continuous Signal
• Digital Signal
• Analog or Continuous Signal: If the amplitude of signal continuously varies with respect to time
or if the signal contains infinite number of amplitudes, it is called Analog or continuous signal.
• Digital Signal: If the signal contains only two discrete amplitudes, then it is called digital signal.
With respect to communication, signals are classified into,
• Baseband signal
• Bandpass signal

• Baseband signal: If the signal contains zero frequency or near to zero frequency, it is called
baseband signal.
• Ex: Voice, Audio, Video, Bio-medical signals etc.

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Types of signal (contd…)
• Bandpass signal: If the signal contains band of frequencies far away
from base or zero, it is called bandpass signal.
Ex: AM, FM signals.
• Message: It is sequence of symbols.
Ex: Happy New Year 2020.
• Information:
• The content in the message is called information. It is inversely proportional
to probability of occurrence of the symbol.
• Information is measured in bits, decits, nats.

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Communication System:

Fig.1: Elements of Communication System

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Elements of Communication System
Information source:
• The message or information to be communicated originates in information source.
• Message can be words, group of words, code, data, symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter:
• The objective of the transmitter block is to collect the in coming message signal and modify it in a
suitable fashion (if needed), such that, it can be transmitted via the chosen channel to the receiving point.
Channel:
• Channel is the physical medium which connects the transmitter with that of the receiver.
• The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial cable, fibreoptic cable, wave guide and free space or
atmosphere.
Receiver:
• The receiver block receives the incoming modified version of the message signal from the channel and
processes it to recreate the original (non-electrical) form of the message signal.

12
Modulation
• It is the process of varying the characteristics of high frequency carrier
in accordance with instantaneous values of modulating or message or
baseband signal.
(Or)
• It is a frequency translation technique which converts baseband or low
frequency signal to bandpass or high frequency signal.
• Modulation is used in the transmitter.

13
Need for Modulation
• To translate the frequency of a low-pass signal to a higher band so that the spectrum
of the transmitted bandpass signal matches the bandpass characteristics of the
channel.
• For efficient transmission, it has been found that the antenna dimension has to be of
the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the signal being transmitted.
• Since C= f for a typical low-frequency signal of 2 kHz, the wavelength works out to
be 150 km. Even assuming the height of the Antenna half the wavelength, the height
works out to be 75 km, which is impracticable.
• To enable transmission of a signal from several message sources simultaneously
through a single channel employing frequency division multiplexing.
• To improve noise and interference immunity in transmission over a noise channel by
expanding the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
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Baseband and Carrier communication
• Baseband communication: The message signal (information bearing signal) delivered by
the information source or the input transducer which is usually low frequency signal.
• Carrier communication: Communication that uses modulation to shift the frequency
spectrum of message signal is known as carrier communication.
• We use the term modulation to refer to changes made in a carrier according to the
information being sent
• Modulation takes two inputs
• Carrier
• Signal
• The generated output after modulation is termed as modulated carrier.

15
Signal parameters:
•   (sine wave): s(t)= Asin(2ft+ )
Signal
• Peak Amplitude (A)
o maximum strength of signal(volts)
• Frequency (f)
o Rate of change of signal
o Measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
o Time Period = time for one repetition (T)
o T = 1/f
• Phase ()
o Distance between two points of corresponding phase in two consecutive cycles

 = Wavelength
• Assuming signal velocity v
o  = vT
o f = v
o c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space) 16
Analog and Digital Modulation

17
Continuous Wave Modulation:
• Amplitude Modulation: In Amplitude Modulation, amplitude of the high
frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.
• Angle Modulation: In Angle Modulation, the angle of the carrier wave is
varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase
modulation.
• If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value
of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Frequency Modulation.
• If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Phase
Modulation.

18
Pulse Modulation
• In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a
carrier wave. This is further divided into analog and digital modulation.
• In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude or duration or position of
a pulse is varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of the
baseband modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width Modulation
(PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
• In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital form
of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM.
This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM).
19
Selection of modulation technique
The choice of the type of modulation is based on several factors,
such as :
• The amount of bandwidth allocated.
• The types of noise and interference that the signal encounters in transmission
over the channel.

20
Analog Communication
• Information is encoded in a continuous amplitude, continuous time signal.
• Analog systems are less tolerant to noise.
• Make good use of bandwidth.
• Easy to manipulate mathematically.
• Analog signals require hardware receivers and transmitters that are
designed to perfectly fit the particular transmission.
• If you are working on a new system, and you decide to change your
analog signal, you need to completely change your transmitters and
receivers.

21
Amplitude Modulation (AM):
• In AM, the information signal varies with the amplitude of the carrier
sine wave.
• The instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in
accordance with the amplitude and frequency variations of the
modulating signal.
• The carrier frequency remains constant during the modulation process,
but its amplitude varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
• An increase in the amplitude of the modulating signal causes the
amplitude of the carrier to increase.

22
AM (contd…)

23
AM wave equation:
• Modulating or baseband signal is given by:
m(t)=Am cos(2πfm t)
• Carrier signal is given by:
c(t)=Ac cos(2πfc t)
Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively .

The equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be:

s(t)=[Ac + Am cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t) ………..(1)

24
Modulation Index (m):
• A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is
calculated, then such an attempt is called as Modulation
Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation that a
carrier wave undergoes.
s(t)=Ac[1+(Am /Ac)cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)

s(t)=Ac[1+m cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)………………(2)

Where, m is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac
m=Am/Ac …............(3)

25
Modulation Index (contd…)
• Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the
modulated wave.
• We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave,
when cos⁡(2πfm t) is 1.
Amax=Ac + Am ………(4)
• We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave,
when cos(2πfm t) is -1.
Amin=Ac−Am ………(5)
• By adding and subtracting Eq. (4) and (5) we get,
Ac=(Amax + Amin)/2 Am=(Amax - Amin)/2
m= Am/Ac= (Amax - Amin)/(Amax + Amin) 26
Modulation Index (contd…)
• m= 1, Perfect modulation
• m<1, Under modulation
• m>1, Over modulation

(a) Under modulation (b) Perfect Modulation (c) Over Modulation

27
Modulation Index (contd…)
• As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences
a 180o phase reversal, which causes additional sidebands and hence,
the wave gets distorted. Such an over-modulated wave causes
interference, which cannot be eliminated.

28
 Time domain representation:
• Eq. of AM wave in time domain is given by:
s(t)=Ac[1+m cos(2πfm t)] cos(2πfc t)
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfc t) + Ac m cos(2πfc t) cos(2πfm t)
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfc t) + (Ac m/2) cos(2π(fc + fm) t) + (Ac m/2) cos(2π (fc -fm) t)
• 1st term: Carrier signal with amplitude Ac and frequency fc.
• 2nd term: Amplitude= mAc /2, frequency = fc+fm, Upper sideband
frequency
• 3rd term: Amplitude= mAc /2, frequency =fc-fm, Lower sideband frequency

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 Frequency domain representation:
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfc t) + (Ac m/2) cos(2π(fc + fm) t) + (Ac m/2) cos(2π (fc -fm) t)
• Taking Fourier transform on both sides,
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] + Acm/2[M(f-fc)+ M(f+fc)]

Ac

VLSB = mAc/2 VUSB = mAc/2

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Frequency spectrum parameters:
• Center frequency/ Carrier frequency = fc
• Upper sideband frequency = fc + fm
• Lower sideband freq. = fc – fm
• Center frequency peak amplitude: Ac
• Upper and lower sideband voltages: mAc/2
• Bandwidth = fUSB – FLSB = (fc + fm) – (fc – fm) = 2fm

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Types of AM schemes
• Double side band with carrier (AM) system
• Double side band supressed carrier (DSBSC) system
• Single side band system (SSB)
• Vestigial side band (VSB) system

32
Type of AM scheme (contd…)

33
 Power relation in AM
• Consider
  the expression for AM wave:
s(t)=Ac cos(2πfc t) + (Ac m/2) cos(2π(fc + fm) t) + (Ac m/2) cos(2π (fc -fm) t)
• Am wave Eq. contains three components:
• Carrier component
• Upper sideband
• Lower sideband
• Therefore, average power of AM wave is sum of these components

• Here, R is the load resistance (antenna resistance) across which power is

dissipated.
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Power in AM (contd…)
•  Considering RMS value of voltages we get the carrier and sideband
power as:

35
Power in AM (contd…)
•  Therefore total Power (Pt):

36
Current relation in AM (contd…)
•  Current relation between modulating signal current and modulated
signal current:

• Here, It is the current of modulated signal and Ic is the current of

modulating signal

37
Power efficiency (η)
•  In AM carrier does not carry any information, it is used for
convenience in modulation and demodulation. Hence, the carrier
power is wasteful in this sense.
• The useful message information resides in the sidebands power.
• Hence the power efficiency can be calculated as the ratio of useful
power (power in sidebands) to total power.

38
Power efficiency (contd…)
• The condition on m is, 0≤ m ≤ 1.
• η increases monotonically with m, ηmax occurs at m=1, for which
ηmax =33%
• Hence, under best conditions (m=1), only one third of the transmission
power is used for carrying messages.
• For practical signals, the efficiency is less, of the order of 25% or
lower.
• Smaller values of m degrade efficiency further.

39
AM generation:
• High level modulator:   A high level modulator is defined as one that
modulates a high power section of the circuit, typically the final RF
amplifier. Used in  high power broadcast transmitters.
• Low level modulator:   A low level AM modulator would be one
where the modulation is applied to low power stage of the transmitter,
typically in the RF generation stages. Used in TV transmitters

40
Low level modulation

41
High level modulation

42
Contd…
• It follows that the higher the level of modulation, the larger the audio
power required to produce modulation. The high-level system is
definitely at a disadvantage in this regard.
• On the other hand, if any stage except the output stage is modulated,
each following stage must handle sideband power as well as the
carrier. All these subsequent amplifiers must have sufficient bandwidth
for the sideband frequencies.

43
Grid-Modulated Class C Amplifier
• It is so named because the input signals RF (carrier), AF(modulating signal) and
negative Vc voltages are applied to the grid of class C amplifier.
• The modulating voltage (AF) is in series with the negative bias. The modulating
voltage is superimposed on the fixed battery bias. Therefore, the amount of bias is
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and varies at a rate equal to
the modulating frequency.
• The RF input voltages are superimposed on the total bias.
• The resulting plate flows in pulses, the amplitude of each pulse being proportional
to the instantaneous bias and therefore to the instantaneous modulating voltage.
• The application of these pulses to the tuned tank circuit will give amplitude
modulation

44
Grid-Modulated Class C Amplifier (contd…)

45
Plate-Modulated Class C Amplifier
• It is so named because the message signal (AF) is superimposed on
+Vsb and -Vsb and then applied to the plate of a triode tube.
• The plate-modulated class C amplifier is the standard and most widely
used method of obtaining amplitude modulation for broadcasting and
other high-power transmission applications.
• The audio voltage is placed in series with the plate-supply voltage of a
class C amplifier, whose plate current is varied in accordance with the
modulating signal.
• RF (carrier signal) is superimposed on plate voltages.

46
Plate-Modulated Class C Amplifier (contd…)
• Negative bias of the grid of class C amplifier is controlled by the RF
driver transformer. Due to which plate current, varies in accordance to
the RF. In this way, the RF is superimposed on AF and the amplitude
modulated signal is coupled to the load through the tuned transformer.
• RFC choke is placed in series with the modulating transformer to
protect it from RF damage.
• This is the standard and most widely used method of obtaining AM for
broadcasting and other high power transmission application.

47
Plate-Modulated Class C Amplifier (contd…)

48
Plate-Modulated Class C Amplifier (contd…)

49
Collector modulation
• The output stage of the transmitter is a high power frequency class C amplifier.
Class C amplifiers conduct for only a portion of the positive half cycle of their
input signal.
• The collector current pulses cause the tuned circuit to oscillate or ring at the
desired output frequency. The tuned circuit, therefore, reproduces the negative
portion of the carrier signal.
• The modulator is a linear power amplifier that takes the low level modulating
signal and amplifies it to a high power level.
• The modulating output signal is coupled through modulation transformer T1 to
the class C amplifier. The secondary winding of the modulation transformer is
connected in series with the collector supply voltage Vcc of the class C amplifier.

50
Collector modulation (contd…)

51
Collector modulation (contd…)
• With zero modulation input signal. There will be zero modulation voltage across the secondary of
T1. Therefore, the collector supply voltage will be applied directly to the class C amplifier, and the
output carrier will be a steady sine wave.
• When the modulation signal occurs, the AC voltage across the secondary of the modulation
transformer will be added to and subtracted from the collector supply voltage.
• This varying supply voltage is applied to the class C amplifier. Naturally, the amplitude of the
current pulses through transistor Q1 will vary. As a result, the amplitude of the carrier sine wave
varies in accordance with the modulated signal.
• For example, when the modulating signal goes positive, it adds to the collector supply voltage,
thereby increasing its value and causing higher current pulses and a higher amplitude carrier.
• When the modulating signal goes negative, it subtracts from the collector supply voltage making it
less. For that reason, the class C amplifier current pulses are smaller, thereby causing a lower
amplitude carrier output. Hence amplitude modulated wave is obtained which is then transmitted
through antenna.

52
DSB-SC generation:
• DSB-SC signal contains only two sidebands . Thus, if two non-linear
devices such as diodes, transistors etc. are connected in a balanced
mode so that they suppress the carriers of each other, then only
sidebands are left and a  DSB-SC signal is generated .
• Therefore, a balanced modulator may be defined as a circuit in which
two non-linear devices are connected in a balanced mode to produce a
DSB-SC signal .

53
Balanced modulator using diodes

Fig: Balanced modulator using diodes

54
Balanced Modulator: using diode (contd…)
•  The modulating signal x(t) is applied equally with 180o phase reversal
at the inputs of  both the diodes through the input center tapped
transformer.
• The carrier is applied to the center tap of the secondary.
Hence, input voltage to D1 is given by :

And the input voltage to D2 is given by :

55
 Balanced Modulator: using diode (contd…)
•   diode current i1 and i2 are given by :
The

Similarly, i2 is given by

• The primary current in the output transformer is given by the difference between the
individual diode output currents.
56
Balanced Modulator: using diode (contd…)
•  Substituting the values for and :
=

57
Balanced modulator using FETs

Fig: Balanced modulator using FETs

58
59
60
61
62
Switching modulator
• Multiplication operation for modulation is replaced by a simple
switching operation
• This is because the sinusoid can be replaced by any periodic signal
φ(t) with fundamental radian frequency wc.
• The periodic signal can be expressed as:

• Hence,

63
Switching modulator (contd…)
• This shows that the spectrum of the product m(t)φ(t) is the spectrum
M(f) shifted to ±fc, ±2fc, ……… ±nfc….
• Passing the signal through bandpass filter of bandwidth 2B Hz and
tuned to fc will result C1m(t)cos(ωct+θ1)

64
Switching modulator (contd…)
• The square pulse in b is a periodic signal whose Fourier series is:

• The signal m(t)w(t) is given by:

• The signal m(t)w(t) consists of m(t) and an infinite number of

modulated signals with angular frequency ωc, 3ωc, 5ωc…..
• Spectrum of m(t)w(t) consists of m(t) shifted by ±fc, ±3 fc ….. (with
decreasing relative weight) 65
Switching modulator (contd…)
• We are only interested in m(t)cosωct, hence the signal m(t)w(t) is
passed through a bandpass filter of bandwidth 2B Hz centered at ±fc
• This will suppress all spectra components not centered at ±fc to yield
the desired modulated signal (2/π)m(t)cos ωct as shown in fig (d)

66
Switching modulator (contd…)
• The advantage of this scheme is that multiplication of a signal by a
square pulse train is in reality a switching operation.
• It involves switching the signal m(t) on and off periodically and can be
implemented using simple switching element controlled by w(t)

67
Ring modulator
• It is another switching modulator.
• During the positive half-cycles of the carrier, diodes D1 and D3
conduct and D2 and D4 are open.
• Terminal a is therefore connected to c and terminal b to d.
• During negative half-cycles of the carrier, D1 and D3 are open, D2
and D4 are conducting
• Terminal a and d are connected and so is b and c.
• Output is proportional to m(t) during positive half-cycle and to –m(t)
during the negative half-cycle

68
Ring modulator (contd…)

69
Ring modulator (contd…)
• m(t) is multiplied by a square pulse w0(t) shown below:

• The fourier series of w0(t) is given below:

• The signal m(t)w0(t) is shown below:

70
Ring modulator (contd…)

• When m(t)w0(t) is passed through a bandpass filter tuned to ωc, the filter
output will be (4/π)m(t)cos ωct
• The Ring modulator circuit has two: m(t) and cos ωct
• The input to the bandpass filter does no contain either of these inputs
• As a result, this circuit is an example of a double balanced modulator
71
Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation
• VSB transmission is similar to single-sideband (SSB) transmission, in
which one of the sidebands is completely removed.
• In VSB transmission, however, the second sideband is not completely
removed, but is filtered to remove all but the desired range
of frequencies.
• VSB was developed due to limitations in suppressing one of the
sideband in SSB.
• In elimination of one sideband in SSB it was observed that some
portion of wanted sideband is also removed.

72
VSB (contd…)

Message Signal

Spectrum of VSB Signal

73
VSB generation

74
VSB Demodulation

75
Advantages of VSB
• Reduction in bandwidth.
• Easy filter design as complete sidebands are not removed.
• It has good phase characteristics and makes the transmission pf low
frequency possible.

76
VSB Application
• VSB modulation has become standard for the transmission of Television
signals. Because the video signals need a large transmission bandwidth
using DSB-FC or DSF-SC techniques
• In the VSB transmission the upper sideband of video signal and picture
carrier are transmitted without any suppression. Whereas a vestige i.e. a
part of lower sideband is transmitted and the remaining part is suppressed.
• VSB is mainly used in TV broadcasting for their video transmission. TV
signal consists of:
• Audio signal- transmitted by FM
• Video signal- transmitted by VSB

77
Comparison of modulation techniques

78
Independent sideband (ISB) modulation
Message 1
100 Hz to 6 kHz
USB
Balanced 100.1 - 106 kHz
Crystal Filter
Modulator 1
To Linear Amplifier

100 kHz Crystal 10% Carrier Hybrid

Mixer
Oscillator Adder

Balanced Crystal
Crystal Filter Oscillator
Modulator 2 LSB
Message 2 94 - 99.9 kHz
100 Hz to 6 kHz

79
ISB (contd…)

80
ISB Application
• Radio Telephony
• Radio Teletype

81