Advanced Network Technology

Topic1: Internetworking

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Communications and Services
Certifications

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Cisco Icons and Symbols

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Networking Devices
Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to
as a device.

These devices are broken up into two classifications.

 End-user devices
 Network devices

End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and other

devices that provide services directly to the user.

Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-user
devices together to allow them to communicate.
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 A hub creates one collision
domain and one broadcast
domain
Connects a group of Hosts

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 Switch & Bridges breakup
collision domains
Don’t misunderstand…
bridges/switches are used to
segment networks,
but they will not isolate
broadcast or multicast
packets.

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 Routers create Internetworks
Routers are used to connect networks together
Route packets of data from one network to another
Cisco became the de facto standard of routers because of their high-quality
router products
Routers, by default, break up a broadcast domain

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LANs

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WANs

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Bandwidth

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Internetworking Devices

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 Internetworking Models

 The OSI model was meant to help vendors create

interoperable network devices and software in the form of
protocols so that different vendor networks could work in
peaceable accord with each other
 When networks first came into being, computers could
typically communicate only with computers from the same
manufacturer
 The OSI model is the primary architectural model for
networks. It describes how data and network information
are communicated from an application on one computer

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Why do we need the OSI Model?

To address the problem of networks increasing in size and in number, the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched many network
schemes and recognized that there was a need to create a network model

This would help network builders implement networks that could communicate
and work together

ISO therefore, released the OSI reference model in 1984.

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Don’t Get Confused.
ISO - International Organization for Standardization

OSI - Open System Interconnection

IOS - Internetwork Operating System

To avoid confusion, some people say “International

Standard Organization.”

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The OSI Reference Model

7 Application The OSI Model will be

used throughout your
6 Presentation
entire networking career!
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical
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The OSI Reference Model
You need to know the seven layers in sequence, either
top-to-bottom or bottom-to-top. Here are some
mnemonic phrases to help you remember the layers of
the OSI model.
Top-to-bottom: “All people Seem To Need Data
Processing”

Bottom-to-top: “Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza

Away”
Memorize it!
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OSI Model
Application
Application
(Upper) Presentation
Layers
Session

Transport

Network
Data Flow
Layers
Data-Link

Physical

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Layer 7 - The Application Layer
7 Application This layer deal with
networking applications.
6 Presentation
5 Session Examples:
4 Transport  Email
 Web browsers
3 Network
2 Data Link PDU - User Data
1 Physical
Each of the layers have Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
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Layer 6 - The Presentation Layer

7 Application This layer is responsible for

presenting the data in the
6 Presentation
required format which may
5 Session include:
4 Transport Code Formatting
Encryption
3 Network Compression
2 Data Link
PDU - Formatted Data
1 Physical
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 Layer 5 - The Session Layer
7 Application  This layer establishes, manages, and terminates
sessions between two communicating hosts.
 Creates Virtual Circuit
6 Presentation  Coordinates communication between systems
 Organize their communication by offering three
5 Session different modes
 Simplex
4 Transport  Half Duplex
 Full Duplex
3 Network
2 Data Link Example:
 Client Software
1 Physical
( Used for logging in)

PDU - Formatted Data

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 Layer 4 - The Transport Layer
7 Application This layer breaks up the data from the
sending host and then reassembles it in the
6 Presentation receiver.

5 Session It also is used to insure reliable data transport

across the network.
4 Transport Can be reliable or unreliable
Sequencing
3 Network Acknowledgment
Retransmission
2 Data Link Flow Control

1 Physical PDU - Segments

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 Layer 3 - The Network Layer
 Sometimes referred to as the “Cisco Layer”.
7 Application  End to End Delivery
 Provide logical addressing that routers use for path
6 Presentation determination
 Segments are encapsulated
5 Session  Internetwork Communication
 Packet forwarding
4 Transport  Packet Filtering
 Makes “Best Path Determination”
3 Network  Fragmentation

2 Data Link PDU – Packets – IP/IPX

1 Physical

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Layer 2 - The Data Link Layer
 Performs Physical Addressing
7 Application  This layer provides reliable transit of data
across a physical link.
6 Presentation  Combines bits into bytes and
bytes into frames
5 Session  Access to media using MAC address
 Error detection, not correction
 LLC and MAC
4 Transport  Logical Link Control performs Link
establishment
3 Network  MAC Performs Access method

2 Data Link
1 Physical PDU - Frames
Preamble DMAC SMAC Data length DATA FCS
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 Layer 1 - The Physical Layer
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
This is the physical media through
4 Transport which the data, represented as
electronic signals, is sent from the
3 Network source host to the destination host.
2 Data Link
Move bits between devices
1 Physical Encoding
PDU - Bits

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Data Encapsulation
Application
Presentation
Session
PDU
Upper-Layer Data

Transport Segment
TCP HeaderUpper-Layer Data

Network Packet
IP Header Data

LLC Header Data FCS

Data-Link Frame

MAC Header Data FCS

Physical Bits
0101110101001000010
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OSI Model Analogy
Application Layer - Source Host

After riding your new bicycle a few times in Mogadishu, you

decide that you want to give it to a friend who lives in BAIDOA,
BAY.
NB: I borrowed this example from apparently Indian teacher whose name I did not find. I thank him for the good analogy
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 OSI Model Analogy
Presentation Layer - Source Host

Make sure you have the proper directions to

disassemble and reassemble the bicycle.
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OSI Model Analogy
Session Layer - Source Host

Call your friend and make sure you have his correct
address.
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OSI Model Analogy
Transport Layer - Source Host

Disassemble the bicycle and put different pieces in

different boxes. The boxes are labeled
“1 of 3”, “2 of 3”, and “3 of 3”. 30
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 OSI Model Analogy
Network Layer - Source Host

Put your friend's complete mailing address (and yours)

on each box.Since the packages are too big for your
mailbox (and since you don’t have enough stamps) you
determine that you need to go to the post office.
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OSI Model Analogy
Data Link Layer – Source Host

Mogadishu post office takes possession of the boxes.

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OSI Model Analogy
Physical Layer - Media

The boxes are flown from Mogadishu to BAY.

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 OSI Model Analogy
Data Link Layer - Destination

BAIDOA post office receives your boxes.

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OSI Model Analogy
Network Layer - Destination

Upon examining the destination address,

BAIDOA post office determines that your boxes
should be delivered to your written home
address. 35
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OSI Model Analogy
Transport Layer - Destination

Your friend calls you and tells you he got all 3 boxes
and he is having another friend named Ali reassemble
the bicycle. 36
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OSI Model Analogy
Session Layer - Destination

Your friend hangs up because he is done talking to you.

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OSI Model Analogy
Presentation Layer - Destination

Ali is finished and “presents” the bicycle to your friend.

Another way to say it is that your friend is finally
getting him “present”. 38
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OSI Model Analogy
Application Layer - Destination

Your friend enjoys riding his new bicycle in BAIDOA.

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Data Flow Through a Network

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Types of Transmission

Unicast
Multicast
Broadcast

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Type of Transmission

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Broadcast Domain
 A group of devices receiving broadcast frames
initiating from any device within the group

 Routers do not forward broadcast frames,

broadcast domains are not forwarded from one
broadcast to another.

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 Collision

 The effect of two nodes sending transmissions

simultaneously in Ethernet. When they meet on the
physical media, the frames from each node collide and are
damaged.

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Collision Domain

 The network area in Ethernet over which frames

that have collided will be detected.
 Collisions are propagated by hubs and repeaters
 Collisions are Not propagated by switches, routers,
or bridges

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Physical Layer

Defines

EIA/TIA-232
• Media type

Ethernet

802.3
Physical

V.35
• Connector type
• Signaling type

802.3 is responsible for LANs based on the carrier sense multiple access
collision detect (CSMA/CD) access methodology. Ethernet is an example
of a CSMA/CD network.

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 Physical Layer: Ethernet/802.3

10Base2—Thin Ethernet
10Base5—Thick Ethernet

Host
Hub
10BaseT—Twisted Pair

Hosts

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Device Used At Layer 1

Physical

A B C D

• All devices are in the same collision domain.

• All devices are in the same broadcast domain.
• Devices share the same bandwidth.
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Hubs & Collision Domains

• More end stations means more

collisions.
• CSMA/CD is used.

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 Layer 2

MAC Layer—802.3
Number of Bytes 8 6 6 2 Variable 4
Preamble Destination Address Source Address Length Data FCS

Ethernet II
uses “Type”
0000.0C xx.xxxx here and
does not use
IEEE Assigned Vendor 802.2.
Assigned

MAC Address
synchronize senders and receivers
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 Devices On Layer 2 (Switches & Bridges)

Data-Link

1 2 3 4 OR 1 2

• Each segment has its own collision domain.

• All segments are in the same broadcast domain.
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 Switches

Switch
Memory
• Each segment is its own
collision domain.
• Broadcasts are forwarded
to all segments.

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 Layer 3 : Network Layer

Network
IP, IPX
• Defines logical source
and destination

Frame Relay
Data-Link
addresses associated 802.2

HDLC
with a specific protocol

Ethernet
• Defines paths through
network
Physical
802.3
EIA/TIA-232
V.35

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 Layer 3 : (cont.)

Network Layer End-Station Packet

Source Destination
IP Header Data
Address Address

Logical
Address
172.15.1.1
Network Node
 Route determination occurs at this layer, so a packet must include a source and
destination address.
 Network-layer addresses have two components: a network component for internetwork
routing, and a node number for a device-specific address. The example in the figure is
an example of an IP packet and address.
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 Layer 3 (cont.)

Address Mask
172.16.122.204 255.255.0.0
172 16 122 204
Binary
Address 10101100 00010000 01111010 11001100
255 255 0 0
Binary
Mask 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000

Network Host

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 Device On Layer 3
Router
• Broadcast control
• Multicast control
• Optimal path determination
• Traffic management
• Logical addressing
• Connects to WAN services

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 Layer 4 : Transport Layer
• Distinguishes between
upper-layer applications

Transport
• Establishes end-to-end
connectivity between TCP UDP SPX
applications
• Defines flow control

Network
• Provides reliable or IP IPX
unreliable services for data
transfer

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Reliable Service

Sender Receiver
Synchronize

Acknowledge, Synchronize

Acknowledge

Connection
Connection Established
Established

Data Transfer
(Send Segments)

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Transport Layer Overview

Transmission
Transmission Control
Control Connection-
Application Protocol
Protocol (TCP)
(TCP) Oriented

Transport User
User Datagram
Datagram Connectionless
Protocol
Protocol (UDP)
(UDP)
Internet

Data-Link

Physical

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 TCP Segment Format
Bit 0 Bit 15 Bit 16 Bit 31

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

Sequence Number (32)

Acknowledgment Number (32) 20

Bytes
Header
Length (4) Reserved (6) Code Bits (6) Window (16)

Checksum (16) Urgent (16)

Options (0 or 32 if Any)

Data (Varies)
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 Port Numbers

F T S D T S R
T E M N F N I
Application P
Layer
P L T S T M
N P P P
E
T

21
21 23 25 53
53 69
69 161 520 Port
Numbers
Transport
Layer TCP UDP

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TCP Port Numbers

Source
Source Destination
Destination …
…
Port
Port Port
Port

Telnet Z
Host A Host Z

SP DP Destination port = 23.

1028 23 … Send packet to my
1028 23 …
Telnet
application.

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TCP Port Numbers

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 TCP Three-Way Handshake/Open
Connection
Host A Host B

Send SYN
1 (seq = 100 ctl = SYN)
SYN Received

Send SYN, ACK 2

SYN Received (seq = 300 ack = 101
ctl = syn,ack)
Established
3 (seq = 101 ack = 301
ctl = ack)

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Windowing

Windowing in networking means the quantity of data

segments which is measured in bytes that a machine can
transmit/send on the network without receiving an
acknowledgement

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TCP Simple Acknowledgment
Sender Receiver
Send 1
Receive 1
Send ACK 2
Receive ACK 2

Send 2
Receive 2
Send ACK 3
Receive ACK 3
Send 3
Receive 3

Receive ACK 4 Send ACK 4

Window Size = 1 66
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 TCP Sequence and
Acknowledgment Numbers
Source
Source Destination
Destination Sequence
Sequence Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment …
…
Port
Port Port
Port

I just
sent number
I just got number
11.
11, now I need
number 12.
ourceSource Dest. Ack.
Dest. Seq. Seq. Ack.

Source Dest. Seq. Ack.

1028
1028 23
23 10
10 100
100

23
23 1028
1028 100
100 11
11

1028
1028 23
23 11
11 101
101 Source Dest. Seq. Ack.

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23 1028
102867 101
101 12
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Windowing

 There are two window sizes—one set to 1 and one set to 3.

 When you’ve configured a window size of 1, the sending
machine waits for an acknowledgment for each data
segment it transmits before transmitting another
 If you’ve configured a window size of 3, it’s allowed to
transmit three data segments before an acknowledgment is
received.

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Windowing

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Transport Layer Reliable Delivery

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Flow Control
 Another function of the transport layer is to provide
optional flow control.

 Flow control is used to ensure that networking devices

don’t send too much information to the destination,
overflowing its receiving buffer space, and causing it to
drop the sent information

 The purpose of flow control is to ensure the destination

doesn't get overrun by too much information sent by the
source

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Flow Control

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TCP vs UDP

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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the connectionless transport protocol in the
TCP/IP protocol stack.

UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges datagrams, without acknowledgments

or guaranteed delivery. Error processing and retransmission must be handled by
higher layer protocols.

UDP is designed for applications that do not need to put sequences of segments
together.

The protocols that use UDP include:

• TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol)
• DNS (Domain Name System)
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 UDP Segment Format
Bit
1 0 Bit 15 Bit 16 Bit 31

Source Port (16) Destination Port (16)

8
Bytes
Length (16) Checksum (16)

Data (if Any)

No sequence or acknowledgment fields

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 How They Operate
Hub Bridge Switch Router

Collision Domains:
1 4 4 4
Broadcast Domains:
1 1 1 4
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Topic 2: Ethernet Networking and
Data Encapsulation

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 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) 802 Standards
 IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network management.

 IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data link layer in the OSI
Reference Model. The IEEE divides this layer into two sublayers -- the
logical link control (LLC) layer and the media access control (MAC)
layer.

 IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use
CSMA/CD. This is the basis of the Ethernet standard.

 IEEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a token-
passing mechanism (token bus networks).

 IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for token-ring networks.

 IEEE 802.6: Standard for Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

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 Ethernet Networks in Review

Ethernet is a contention-based media access

method that allows all hosts on a network
to share the same link’s bandwidth
Ethernet uses both Data Link and Physical
layer specifications, so you’ll be presented
with information relative to both layers,
which you’ll need to effectively implement,
troubleshoot, and maintain an Ethernet
network.

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Collision Domains
 the Ethernet term collision domain refers to a
network scenario wherein one device sends a
frame out on a physical network segment forcing
every other device on the same segment to pay
attention to it.

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 Broadcast Domains
 Broadcast domain refers to a group of devices on
a specific network segment that hear all the
broadcasts sent out on that specific network
segment

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 CSMA/CD
Ethernet networking uses a protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), which helps devices share the bandwidth
evenly while preventing two devices from transmitting simultaneously on the
same network medium. CSMA/CD was actually created to overcome the
problem of the collisions that occur when packets are transmitted from
different nodes at the same time.

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 Simplex, Half-duplex, full-duplex

Hubs work in half-duplex mode, switches bridges in

full-duplex mode
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Half-duplex, full-duplex examples

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 Ethernet at the Data Link Layer
Ethernet at the Data Link layer is responsible for
Ethernet addressing, commonly referred to as
MAC or hardware addressing. Ethernet is also
responsible for framing packets received from the
Network layer and preparing them for
transmission on the local network through the
Ethernet contention-based media access method.

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 Ethernet Addressing
Here’s where we get into how Ethernet addressing works. It uses the
Media Access Control (MAC) address burned into each and every
Ethernet network interface card (NIC). The MAC, or hardware, address
is a 48-bit (6-byte) address written in a hexadecimal format.

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 Binary to Decimal and Hexadecimal Conversion

With binary numbering, which is really pretty simple. The digits used
are limited to either a 1 or a 0, and each digit is called a bit, which is
short for binary digit. Typically, you group either 4 or 8 bits together,
with these being referred to as a nibble and a byte, respectively.

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Hex to binary to decimal chart

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Binary, Hex, decimal conversion

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 Ethernet at the Physical Layer
10Base-T (IEEE 802.3) 10 Mbps using category 3 unshielded twisted pair (UTP) wiring
100Base-TX (IEEE 802.3u) 100Base-TX, most commonly known as Fast Ethernet,
100Base-FX (IEEE 802.3u) Uses fiber cabling 62.5/125-micron multimode fiber.
1000Base-CX (IEEE 802.3z) Copper twisted-pair, called twinax, is a balanced coaxial
pair that
1000Base-T (IEEE 802.3ab) Category 5, four-pair UTP wiring up to 100 meters long and
up to 1 Gbps.
1000Base-SX (IEEE 802.3z) The implementation of 1 Gigabit Ethernet running over
multimode fiber-optic cable
1000Base-LX (IEEE 802.3z) Single-mode fiber that uses a 9-micron core and 1300 nm
laser and can go from 3 kilometers up to 10 kilometers.
1000Base-ZX (Cisco standard) 1000BaseZX, or 1000Base-ZX, is a Cisco specified standard
for Gigabit Ethernet communication.
10GBase-T (802.3.an) 10GBase-T is a standard proposed by the IEEE 802.3an committee
to provide 10 Gbps connections over conventional UTP cables,

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 Ethernet Cabling
You need to really understand the following
three types of cables:
• Straight-through cable
• Crossover cable
• Rolled cable (Console)

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 Fiber Optic
Fiber-optic cabling has been around for a long time and has some solid
standards. The cable allows for very fast transmission of data, is made of
glass (or even plastic!), is very thin, and works as a waveguide to transmit
light between two ends of the fiber. Fiber optics has been
used to go very long distances, as in intercontinental connections, but it is
becoming more and more popular in Ethernet LAN networks due to the
fast speeds available and because, unlike UTP, it’s immune to interference
like cross-talk.

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 Data Encapsulation
When a host transmits data across a network to another device, the data goes through a
process called encapsulation and is wrapped with protocol information at each layer of
the OSI model. Each layer communicates only with its peer layer on the receiving device.
To communicate and exchange information, each layer uses protocol data units (PDUs).
These hold the control information attached to the data at each layer of the model. They
are usually attached to the header in front of the data field but can also be at the trailer,
or end, of it.

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PDU and layer addressing

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The Cisco three-Layer
Hierarchical Model

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 The Cisco three-Layer
Hierarchical Model
The core layer is literally the core of the network. At the top of the hierarchy, the
core layer is responsible for transporting large amounts of traffic both reliably
and quickly.
The distribution layer is sometimes referred to as the workgroup layer and is the
communication point between the access layer and the core. The primary
functions of the distribution layer are to provide routing, filtering, and WAN
access and to determine how packets can
access the core, if needed.
The access layer controls user and workgroup access to internetwork resources.
The access layer is sometimes referred to as the desktop layer. The network
resources most users need will be available locally because the distribution layer
handles any traffic for remote services

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Question & Answer
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