CROSS FIELD TUBES AND

MICROWAVE
SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES

 BY: DHANARAJU ATHINA

 TED’s are semiconductor devices with no junctions and gates
as compared to microwave transistors which operates with
either junction or gates.

 They are fabricated from compound semiconductors like

GaAs, InP, CdTe etc.

 TED’s operate with hot electrons whose energy is much

greater than the thermal energy.

 Transistors operate with hot electrons whose energy is not

much greater than their thermal energy.
 Invented by J.B Gunn
Gunn Effect:
 Above some critical voltage (Corresponding

to Electric field of 2k-4k V/cm) the current

passing through n-type GaAs becomes a
periodic fluctuating function of time.
 Frequency of oscillation is determined mainly

by the specimen, not by the external circuit.

 Period of oscillation is inversely proportional

to the specimen length and is equal to the

transit time of electrons between the
electrodes
 The current waveform was produced by
applying a voltage pulse of 16V and 10ns
duration to an n-type GaAs of 2.5 x 10-3 cm
length. The oscillation frequency was 4.5Ghz
 Explanation for Gunn Effect:
Ridley – Watkins – Hilsum (RWH) Theory

 Two concepts related with RWH Theory.

◦ Differential negative resistance
◦ Two valley model
 Fundamental concept of RWH Theory.
 Developed in bulk solid state III-V compound

when a voltage is applied

 Differential negative resistance make the
sample electrically unstable.
 Data for two valleys in GaAs
 Basic mechanism involved in the operation of bulk n-type GaAs
devices is the transfer of electrons from lower conduction valley
the L-Valley to upper Subsidiary valley the U-Valley.
 As shown in the figure, the curvature of the two valleys in the
conduction band also called the sub bands are different so that
electrons in L-Valley has a smaller effective mass than in the U-
Valley.
 The different effective masses mean different mobilities for the L-
Valley and the U-Valley respectively.
 As the field is increased , the electrons gains energy from it and
move upward in the U-Valley. Actually the probability of this inter
valley transfer of electrons is good as there are many available
states in the U-valley.
 As the electrons transfer to this U-valley ,their mobility decreases
and the effective mass is increased thus decreasing the current
density and hence negative directional conductivity.
 Above the threshold field, the transfer electron effect takes
place( known as the population inversion).
 Conductivity of n-type GaAs:

 e = Electron charge
 μ = Electron mobility
 = Electron density in the lower valley
 = Electron density in the upper valley
 is the electron density
 According to RWH theory, in order to exhibit
negative resistance, the energy band
structure of semiconductor should satisfy

◦ The energy difference between two valleys must be

several times larger than the thermal energy (KT ~
0.0259eV)
◦ The energy difference between the valleys must be
smaller than the bandgap energy (E g)
◦ Electron in lower valley must have a higher mobility
and smaller effective mass than that of in upper
valley

 Possessed by GaAs, InP, CdTe etc

 In GaAs, at
electric fields
exceeding the
critical value of
Ec ≈ 3.2 kV/cm
the differential
mobility is –ve.

 When the field

exceeds Ec and
further
increases, the
electron drift
velocity
decreases.
 Gunn Oscillation Mode:
◦ (f x L) = 107 cm/s and (n x L) > 10 12 /cm2
◦ Cyclic formation of High field domain
 Stable Amplification Mode
◦ (f x L) = 107 cm/s and 1011/cm2 < (n x L) >1012/cm2
 LSA Oscillation Mode
◦ (f x L) >107 cm/s and 2 x 104 < (n/f) > 2 X105/cm2
 Bias-circuit
◦ (f x L) is small. L is very small. When E=Eth current
falls as Gunn oscillation begins, leads to oscillation
in bias circuit (1KHz to 100MHz)
 Condition for successful domain drift:
Transit time (L/vs) > Electric relaxation time

 Frequency of oscillation = vdom/Leff.

 Gunn diode with a resistive circuit

 Voltage change across diode is constant
 Period of oscillation is the time required for the domain to
drift from the cathode to anode.
 Not suitable for microwave applications because of low
efficiency.
 Gunn diode with a resonant circuit has high efficiency.
There are three domain modes for Gunn
oscillation modes.
1. Transit time domain mode, (Gunn mode)
2. Delayed domain mode

◦ Here domain is collected while

◦ New domain cannot form until E rises above
threshold again.
◦ ,
◦ Also called inhibited mode.
◦ Efficiency: 20%
3. Quenched domain mode:

◦ If bias field drops below Es, domain collapses

before it reaches anode.
◦ When the bias field swings above E th, a new domain
starts and process repeats.
◦ Frequency of oscillation is determined by resonant
circuit.
◦ Efficiency : 13%
 Limited Space charge Accumulation Mode
(LSA)

Most Important mode for Gunn oscillator.

Domain is not allowed to form.
Efficiency : 20%
 Power: 1W (Between 4HHz and 16GHz)
 Gain Bandwidth product : >10dB
 Average gain : 1 – 12 dB
 Noise figure : 15 dB
 In radar transmitters
 Air traffic control (ATC) and Industrial

Telemetry
 Broadband linear amplifier
 Fast combinational and sequential logic

circuit
 Low and medium power oscillators in

microwave receivers
 As pump sources
 Negative resistance is achieved by creating a
delay (1800 Phase shift) between the voltage
and current.
 Delay is achieved by,
 Delay in generating the avalanche current
multiplication
 Delay due to transit time through the material
 So called Avalanche transit time (ATT)
devices
 Avalanche is generated by Carrier impact
ionization
 TT is due to the drift in the high field
domain
 Presence of P-N junctions
 Diode is reverse biased
 High field (potential gradient) is applied of

the order 400 KV/cm

 Two modes of ATT

◦ IMPATT- Impact ionization ATT (Efficiency 5-10%)

◦ TRAPATT- Trapped plasma ATT (Efficiency 20-60%)
 Read diode is n+ p i p+ diode

 Avalanche multiplication at p region

 Intrinsic region acts as the drift space

where the generated holes must drift
toward p+

 Space between n+ p junction and i p+

junction is called the space charge region

 The device operation delivers power from

the dc bias to the oscillation
 Operation:

◦ Avalanche multiplication and drift of the

high field zone
Carrier current
I0(t) and
External current
Ie(t)
 The physical mechanism is the
interaction of impact ionization
avalanche and the transit time of
charge carriers.
 So Read-type diodes are also called

IMPATT diode
 Most simplest IMPATT diodes are the

basic Read diodes

 Three typical Si IMPATT diodes are

shown below. Operations are similar to

Read diode
 Derived from IMPATT diode
 Presence of P-N junctions
 Diode is reverse biased
 High current densities than normal

avalanche operation
 It is diode.
 Operation:
•Uses non linear reactance or time varying reactance

•Parametric term is derived from parametric excitation,

since the capacitance or inductance, which is a reactive
parameter, can be used to produce capacitive or
inductive excitation.

•Parametric excitation is subdivided into parametric

amplification and oscillation.

•Many of the essential properties of non linear energy

storage systems were described by Faraday and Lord
Rayleigh.
•The first analysis of non linear capacitance was
given by Van der Ziel in 1948 which suggested that
such a device might be useful as a low noise
amplifier, since it was essentially a reactive device in
which no thermal noise is generated.

•In 1949 Landon analyzed and presented

experimental results of such circuits used as
amplifiers, converters, and oscillators.
•In the age of solid state electronics, microwave
electronics engineers thought of a solid state
microwave device to replace the noisy electron
beam amplifier.
•In 1957 Suhl proposed a microwave solid state
amplifier that used ferrite.
•The first realization of a microwave parametric

amplifier was made by Weiss in 1957 after which

the parametric amplifier was last discovered.
•At present the soild state varactor diode is the most

widely used parametric amplifier.

•Unlike microwave tubes, transistors and lasers, the

parametric diode is of reactive nature and thus

generates a very small amount of Johnson (thermal)
noise.
•Parametric amplifier utilizes an ac rather than a dc
power supply as microwave tubes do. In this
respect, the parametric amplifier is analogous to the
quantum amplifier laser or maser in which an ac
power supply is used.
•A reactance is defined as a circuit element that stores
and releases electromagnetic energy as opposed to a
resistance, which dissipates energy.

•Ifthe stored energy is predominantly in the electric

field, the reactance is said to be capacitive; inductive if
in the magnetic field.

•C = Q/V
•If the ratio is not linear, the capacitive reactance is said
to be nonlinear. In this case it is convenient to define a
non linear capacitance as the partial derivative of charge
with respect to voltage.
i.e
C(v) = dQ/dt
dQ
dv
The analogous definition of non linear inductance is
L(i) = dΦ/di.

In the operation of parametric devices, the mixing

effects occur when voltages at two or more different
frequencies are impressed on a nonlinear reactance.
•Derived a set of general energy relations regarding
power flowing into and out of an ideal nonlinear
reactance.

•Theserelations are useful in predicting whether

power gain is possible in a parametric amplifier.
•One signal generator and one pump generator at their
respective frequencies , together with
associated series resistances and bandpass filters, are
applied to a nonlinear capacitance C(t).

•These resonating circuits of filters are designed to reject

power at all frequencies other than their respective signal
frequencies.
•In the presence of two applied frequencies
an infinite number of resonant frequencies of
are generated, where m and n are any integers.
•Each of the resonating circuits is assumed to be
ideal.

•The power loss by the nonlinear susceptance is

negligible. That is the power entering the nonlinear
capacitor at the pump frequency is equal to the
power leaving the capacitor at the other frequencies
through the nonlinear interaction.

•Manleyand Rowe established the power relations

between the input power at the frequencies

and the output power at the other frequencies

•Itis assumed that the signal voltage vs is much
smaller than the pumping voltage vp, and the total
voltage across the nonlinear capacitance C(t) is given
by

•The general expressionof the charge Q deposited on

the capacitor is given by
For Q to be real,

The total voltage v can be expressed as a function

of the charge Q.
A similar taylor series expression of v(Q) shows that

V to be real,
The current flowing through C(t) is the total
derivative of Q w r t time. Hence,

Where
•Sincethe capacitance C(t) is assumed to be pure
reactance, the average power at the frequencies
• is

Then conservation of power can be written

Multiply the above equation by a factor of
and
rearrangement of the resultant into two parts yield

Since
Then,

Becomes,
And is independent of ωp or ωs.
For any choice of the frequencies fp and fs, the
resonating circuit external to thatof the nonlinear
capacitance C(t) can be so adjusted that the
currents may keep all the voltage amplitudes
Unchanged.
The charges are also unchanged, sincethey
are functions of the voltages .
Consequently, the frequencies can be
arbitrarily adjusted in order to require

Eqn I can be expressed as

Since , then

Similarly,

Where are replaced by

respectively.
The above equations are standard forms for the
Manley-Rowe power relations.
The term indicates the realpower flowing into
or leaving the nonlinear capacitor at a frequency of
.The frequency represents the
fundamental frequency of the pumping voltage
oscillator and the frequency signifies the
fundamental frequency of the signal voltage
generator.
The sign convention for the power term will
follow that power flowing into the nonlinear
capacitance or the power coming from the two
voltage generators is positive, whereas the power
leaving from the nonlinear capacitance or the power
flowing into the load resistance is negative.

Consider for instance, the case where the power

output flow is allowed at a frequency of
as shown in fig.