Chapter 10: Phase Transformations

WHY STUDY Phase Transformations?

• The development of a set of desirable mechanical characteristics for a material often results
from a phase transformation that is wrought by a heat treatment.
• The time and temperature dependencies of some phase transformations are conveniently
represented on modified phase diagrams. These are called Time Temperature
Transformation plots (TTT) or Isothermal Transformation Diagrams.
• For example, the tensile strength of an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76 wt
% C) can be varied between approximately 700 MPa (100,000 psi) and 2000 MPa (300,000
psi) depending on the heat treatment employed.
• The development of microstructure in both single- and two-phase alloys typically involves
some type of phase transformation—an alteration in the number and/or character of the
phases.
 Chapter 10: Phase Transformations
Learning Outcomes:
1) Explain nucleation process and how the nucleation rate affects the
crystalline structure,

2) Visualize/describe the microstructure of steel alloys containing

microconstituents, such as fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, spheroidite, bainite
martensite and tempered martensite,

3) Describe the mechanical characteristics of steel alloys containing

microconstituents, such as fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, spheroidite, bainite
martensite and tempered martensite,

4) Design a heat treatment to produce a specified microstructure when the

relevant isothermal transformation (or continuous-cooling transformation)
diagram is provided for an iron-carbon alloy.

2
Chapter 10 - 2
 Phase Transformations
ADD MORE
NUCLEI ATOMS CRYSTAL

CONTINUES UNTIL EQUILIBRIUM

TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

NUCLEATION RATE
N. RATE
ΔT

ΔT
N. RATE

Chapter 10 - 3
Rate of Phase Transformations

Chapter 10 - 4
 Transformations & Undercooling
• Eutectoid transf. (Fe-Fe3C system): γ Þ α + Fe3C
• For transf. to occur, must 0.76 wt% C 6.7 wt% C
cool to below 727°C 0.022 wt% C
(i.e., must “undercool”)
T(°C)
1600 Fig. 9.24, Callister &
δ Rethwisch 10e.
[Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
1400 L Diagrams, 2nd edition, Vol. 1, T. B.
Massalski (Editor-in-Chief), 1990.
Reprinted by permission of ASM
γ γ +L International, Materials Park, OH.]
1200 1148°C L+Fe3C

Fe3C (cementite)
(austenite)
1000
α γ +Fe3C
Eutectoid:
ferrite 800 727°C
Equil. Cooling: Ttransf. = 727°C
ΔT α +Fe C 3
600
Undercooling by Ttransf. < 727°C
0.022

0.76

400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe) C, wt%C
Chapter 10 - 5
 The Fe-Fe3C Eutectoid Transformation
• Transformation of austenite to pearlite:
Austenite (γ) cementite (Fe3C)
grain α Ferrite (α)
boundary α
γ
γ α
Adapted from
α pearlite
α
Fig. 9.15,
Callister & α growth
Rethwisch 10e. direction
• For this transformation, 100
rate increases with y (% pearlite) 600°C
(ΔT larger)
[Teutectoid – T ] (i.e., ΔT). 50 650°C Adapted from
675°C Fig. 10.12,
(ΔT smaller) Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.
0
THICK LAYERED α ΔT RATE

THIN LAYERED α ΔT RATE MORE LAYERS TO RESIST SLIP Chapter 10 - 6

 Generation of Isothermal Transformation
Diagrams EUTECTOID

𝑪=𝟎
  .𝟕𝟔𝒘𝒕 % 𝑪
𝑻  =𝟕𝟐𝟕 °𝑪
AUST.
% transformed

TO 100
PEARL.
T = 675°C HALF WAY
y,

50

0 Fig. 10.13, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

1 10 2 10 4 time (s) [Adapted from H. Boyer (Editor), Atlas of
BEGIN 50% 100% Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
Transformation Diagrams, 1977. Reproduced
T(°C) Austenite (stable)
by permission of ASM International, Materials
Park, OH.]
TE (727°C)
700 Austenite
(unstable)

600 Pearlite
isothermal transformation at 675°C
100
50%pearli

500
0%

400
time (s)
te

1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 Chapter 10 - 7
Austenite-to-Pearlite Isothermal Transformation

T(ºC) Austenite (stable)

TE (727°C)
700 Austenite
(unstable)

Fig. 10.14, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

600 Pearlite
γ γ [Adapted from H. Boyer (Editor), Atlas of
Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
γ γ γ γ
Transformation Diagrams, 1977. Reproduced
100

by permission of ASM International, Materials

50%

500 Park, OH.]

0%

%
pe ar
lite

400

1 10 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5
time (s)
Chapter 10 - 8
 Bainite: Another Fe-Fe3C
Transformation Product

Fe3C
(cementite)
α (ferrite)
800 Austenite (stable)
T(°C) A
TE
P
600 100% pearlite 5 μm
Fig. 10.17, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
(From Metals Handbook, Vol. 8, 8th edition,
100% bainite Metallography, Structures and Phase Diagrams,

400 A B THE NOSE

1973. Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.)

FERRITE MATRIX
200 WHISKERS OF
 
100
0%

50%

10-1 10 103 105

Fig. 10.18, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. [Adapted time (s) HARD
from H. Boyer (Editor), Atlas of Isothermal Transformation STRONG
and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, 1977. Reproduced
by permission of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.] TOUGH Chapter 10 - 9
 Spheroidite: Another Microstructure
for the Fe-Fe3C System
α
(ferrite)
FOR ~ 18-24 HOURS
Fe3C
(cementite)

60 μm
Fig. 10.19, Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.
ENERGY & TIME (Copyright United States Steel
Corporation, 1971.)

IN α MATRIX DISLOC. SOFTER

MOVES THAN
SPHERE PARTICLES
  EASY PEARLITE

Chapter 10 - 10
 Martensite: A Nonequilibrium
Transformation Product
• Martensite:
BODY
-- γ(FCC) to Martensite (BCT) CENTERED
TETRAGONAL
x

60 μm
Fe atom potential
x x
sites x x C atom sites
x Adapted from Fig. 10.21,
QUENCH Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

• Isothermal Transf. Diagram

800 Austenite (stable) Martensite needles
T(°C) TE Austenite
A
P Fig. 10.21, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
600 (Courtesy United States Steel Corporation.)

Adapted from NEEDLES

  OF HARD
Fig. 10.23,
Callister & 400 A B 10
Rethwisch 10e. 5 0%
0% 0%

200 M+A 0%
M+A 50%
90% % TRA
M+A NSFO
RMAT
IO N
10-1 10 103 105 time Chapter 10 - 11
 Properties

Martensite – high-strength & brittle

Tempered martensite – high-strength & ductile
Bainite – moderate-strength
Fine pearlite – moderate-strength & brittle
Coarse pearlite – low-strength & ductile
Spheroidite – soft & ductile

Chapter 10 - 12
Using
  the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition (Figure 10.22), specify the nature of the final microstructure (in terms of
microconstituents present and approximate percentages of each) of a small specimen that
has been subjected to the following time–temperature treatments. In each case assume that
the specimen begins at and that it has been held at this temperature long enough to have
achieved a complete and homogeneous austenitic structure.
(a) Cool rapidly to , hold for , then quench to room temperature.
(b) Rapidly cool to , hold for 10 s, then quench to room temperature.
(c) Rapidly cool to , hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to , hold for 10 s, then quench to room
temperature.

Chapter 10 -
(a)
  Cool rapidly to , hold for , then quench to room temperature.

Start at 760 °C

Rapidly cool to 350 °C

Hold
  for s

100% bainite achieved

Quench to room temperature
Remains as 100% bainite

Final:100% bainite

Chapter 10 -
(b)
  Rapidly cool to , hold for 10 s, then quench to room temperature.
Start at 760 °C
Rapidly cool to 625 °C
Hold
  for s
Recall: Fine pearlite forms at lower
temperatures than coarse pearlite

50% fine pearlite achieved

(Remember 50% austenite)
Quench to room temperature
50% fine pearlite remains and
50% martensite forms

Final: 50% fine pearlite – 50% martensite

Chapter 10 -
 (c)
  Rapidly cool to , hold for 4 s, rapidly cool to , hold for 10 s, then quench to room
temperature.
Start at 760 °C
Rapidly cool to 600 °C
Hold for 4 s
50% fine pearlite achieved
(Remember 50% austenite)
Start over from 0 s (Keep in mind
you have 50% austenite left)
Rapidly cool to 450 °C
Hold for 10 s
25% bainite achieved (25%
austenite remains)
Quench to room temperature
Final: 50% fine pearlite – 25% bainite – 25% martensite 25% martensite achieved

Chapter 10 -
Consider the isothermal transformation diagram for an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition (Figure 10.22) and then sketch and label time–temperature paths on this
diagram to produce the following microstructures:
(a) 100% coarse pearlite
(b) 50% martensite and 50% austenite
(c) 50% coarse pearlite, 25% bainite, and 25% martensite

Chapter 10 -
(a) 100% coarse pearlite

Start above 727 °C

Recall: Coarse pearlite forms at
higher temperatures than fine pearlite

Rapidly cool to 660 °C

Hold
  for s

Quench to room temperature

Chapter 10 -
(b) 50% martensite and 50% austenite

Start above 727 °C

Rapidly cool to 50%

martensite line (~ 170°C)

Remain at the same

temperature

Chapter 10 -
(c) 50% coarse pearlite, 25% bainite, and 25% martensite
Start above 727 °C
Recall: Coarse pearlite forms at
higher temperatures than fine pearlite

Rapidly cool to 660 °C

 Hold up to 50% dashed line
to achieve 50% coarse
pearlite (~seconds)
Start over from 0 s (Keep in mind
you have 50% austenite left)
Rapidly cool to 490 °C
Hold up to 50% dashed line to
achieve 25% bainite (~10 s)
Quench to room temperature to achieve 25% martensite

Chapter 10 -
 Summary
• Nucleation and growth are the mechanisms involved in the
production of a new phase
• Phase transformation rate is found by accounting for the time
required for 50% transformation
• Heat treatments of Fe-C alloys produce microstructures
including:
-- coarse, fine pearlite, bainite, spheroidite, martensite,
tempered martensite
• Martensite – high-strength & brittle
Tempered martensite – high-strength & ductile
Bainite – moderate-strength
Fine pearlite – moderate-strength & brittle
Coarse pearlite – low-strength & ductile
Spheroidite – soft & ductile

Chapter 10 - 21