Atomic Models and Properties

of Atoms:
Models of Chemical Bonding

Lesson 4
Chapter 3 – DONE!
• On to Chapter 4 – Chemical Bonding
and Properties of Matter
• The chemical bonding in a substance
influences the shape of its molecules
• Molecular shape influences the
properties of that substance.
One of the properties of iron is its
strength, which makes it ideal for
use in support structures
Learning Goals
By the end of this lesson, I will:
• Know the difference between ionic, covalent & metallic bonds, how to
predict these bonds and how to represent them using Lewis
structures
Models of Chemical Bonding
• Three main types of chemical bonding
• Ionic
• Covalent
• Metallic
Models of Chemical Bonding
• Electronegativity
• The relative ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a chemical bond.

What general trends in

electronegativity are shown in
the periodic table?
Models of Chemical Bonding
• Electronegativity difference, ΔEN, between two atoms bonded
together can be low, intermediate, or high. The electron density
diagrams below show the differences in the bonds.
• when ΔEN is 0: electrons are equally shared
• when ΔEN is 1: electrons are more closely associated with the more
electronegative atom
• when ΔEN is high, there is little sharing of electrons

Bonding is a continuum between equal sharing and minimal

sharing of electrons.
Models of Chemical Bonding
• ΔEN between 1.7 and 3.3:
mostly ionic
• ΔEN between 0.4 and 1.7:
polar covalent
• ΔEN between 0.0 and 0.4:
mostly covalent (non-polar)

Three categories of bonds have been set

based on ΔEN .
Models of Chemical Bonding
• Metallic Bonding
• Chemists use the electron-sea model to describe metallic bonding. The
model proposes that the valence electrons of metal atoms move freely
among the ions, forming a “sea” of delocalised electrons that hold the metal
ions rigidly in place.

Microscopic analysis shows that the structure

of metals consists of aggregates of crystals.
Models of Chemical Bonding
• Properties of Metals
• Melting and Boiling Points
• the stronger the bonding forces, the higher the melting and boiling points of
pure metals

Periodic table trends include:

1. For Group 1, melting points decrease as the atomic number increases.
2. For Groups 1 to 6, across a period, melting points increase as atomic number increases.
 Models of Chemical Bonding
Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
• Metals are good conductors because their electrons are
free to move from one atom to the next.
Malleability and Ductility
• Based on the electron-sea model, metals can be shaped
because, when struck, the metal ions can slide by one
another while the electrons still surround them.
Hardness
•The variation between metals is due to differences in
crystal size (smaller ones make harder metals).
 Models of Chemical Bonding
Alloys
• A solid mixture of two or more metals
• Does it HAVE to be solid? Why/why not?
• The addition of the second metal, even in a very small amount, can
significantly affect the properties of the ‘parent’ metal
• In some cases, non-metal atoms, such as carbon, are added

If atoms of the second metal If atoms of the second metal are much
are similar in size to the first smaller than atoms of the first metal,
metal, they take the place of they will fit in spaces between the
those atoms. larger atoms.
Models of Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonding
• Occurs when ΔEN is between 1.7 and 3.3
• Essentially, involves one atom losing one or more electrons
and another atom gaining those electron(s)

There are different ways to show the transfer of electrons in the

formation of ionic compounds.
Models of Chemical Bonding
Ionic Crystals
• Ionic compounds exist as crystal lattice structures with particular
patterns of alternating positive and negative ions.
• The unit cell is the smallest group of ions that is repeated.

NaCl forms a cubic crystal

lattice structure.

• Different types of crystal structures can form.

• the relative sizes and charges of the ions affect the type of crystal structure
that an ionic compound will form.
Models of Chemical Bonding
Properties of Ionic Compounds
• Melting and Boiling Points
• high due to very strong attractions between ions
• Solubility
• ionic compounds are soluble in water when the attractive forces between the
ions and water molecules are stronger than the attractive forces among the
ions themselves

When sodium chloride (NaCl)

dissolves in water, attractive forces
between water molecules and Na
and Cl ions act to break apart the
ionic bonds.
Models of Chemical Bonding
Properties of Ionic Compounds
Mechanical Properties
• hard and brittle, so will break apart when struck

Ionic crystal will break on

smooth planes, where like
charges become aligned.

Conductivity
• solids do not conduct because ions cannot move
• compounds conduct when dissolved in water and ions
can move freely to the electrodes
Models of Chemical Bonding
Covalent Bonding
• occurs when ΔEN is less than 1.7
• covalent bonds are classified into two types:
• polar covalent: atoms do not share electrons equally
• non-polar covalent: atoms share electrons almost equally
• Forces in covalent bonds:
• both attractive and repulsive forces play a role

The length of a covalent bond is

determined by different
electrostatic forces.
Models of Chemical Bonding
LEARNING
CHECK
Describe the chemical bonding and structure
of KF. How do bonding and structure
influence the general properties of the
substance?
Models of Chemical Bonding
LEARNING
CHECK
KF is composed of a metal atom bonded to a non-
metal atom with ΔEN > 1.7. As such, the bond is
classified as ionic. It exists as a cubic crystal lattice
structure, with an alternating pattern of fluoride
ions and potassium ions.

Properties of KF include high melting and boiling

points; solubility in water; hard and brittle; a poor
conductor as a solid, but it does conduct electricity
when dissolved in water.
Models of Chemical Bonding
Quantum Mechanics and Bonding

BAD NEWS! We’re back to Quantum Mechanics

• Quantum mechanics is used to explain and describe chemical

bonding. It is also used to account for shapes of molecules.

• Two theories to focus on – Valence Bond Theory and Molecular

Orbital Theory
Models of Chemical Bonding
Valence Bond (VB) Theory explains bond formation and molecular shapes
based on orbital overlap.
• The region of overlap has a maximum capacity of two electrons, which have
opposite spins.
• There should be maximum overlap of orbitals, since the greater the overlap,
the stronger and more stable the bond.
• Atomic orbital hybridisation is used to help explain the shapes of some
molecules.
• Electron pairs move as far apart as possible to minimise repulson.
• When looking at a molecule we look specifically at the central atom (the one
that has the most bonding electrons) to determine the 3-D geometry.
Representing 3D Models
Models of Chemical Bonding
Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory explains bond formation and molecular
shapes based on the formation of new molecular orbitals.

According to MO theory:
• Covalent bond formation involves atomic orbital overlap that results
in formation of new orbitals called molecular orbitals.
• Molecular orbitals have shapes and energy levels that are different
from those of atomic orbitals.
• The electrons in molecular orbitals are delocalized throughout the
orbital.
Models of Chemical Bonding
For molecules like hydrogen fluoride:
• the 1s orbital of H overlaps with the half-filled 2p orbital of F

• According to MO theory, the bond is a sigma (σ) bond, which is

symmetrical and freely rotates.
Models of Chemical Bonding
For molecules like methane:
•the VB theory of hybrid orbitals is used to explain molecular
shape
•carbon forms four hybrid orbitals (sp3) by combining three 2p
orbitals and a 2s orbital so that four identical bonds can be created

The four sp3 orbitals of C overlap with the s orbitals of H to form methane.
Models of Chemical Bonding
Double bonds
Hybrid orbitals are used to
explain the structure of
ethene or molecules like
ethene.

• it is planar with ~120º bond angles

• the structure is explained by formation of 3 sp2 hybrid orbitals
for each carbon (a 2s orbital mixes with two 2p orbitals)
Models of Chemical Bonding
Double bonds
For bond formation in ethene:
• one sp2 orbital of each carbon overlaps to form a σ bond between the
carbons
• two sp2 orbitals of each carbon overlap with the 1s orbitals of the
hydrogens to form σ bonds
• the lobes of the 2p orbitals of each carbon overlap above and below
the plane to form a pi (π) bond
Models of Chemical Bonding
Triple bonds
• For molecules like ethyne:
• the linear structure is explained by formation of 2 sp hybrid orbitals
for each carbon (a 2s orbital + a 2p orbital)
• sigma bonds form from overlap between sp of each carbon and
between sp of carbons and 1s of hydrogens
• two pi bonds form from overlap of the two 2p orbitals of each carbon
• Recall: p-orbitals at 90°
to each other – so are
π -bonds
 Models of Chemical Bonding
Types of hybridisation
• The names of hybrid orbitals (formed by the combination of two or
more orbitals in the valance shell of an atom) indicate the number and
types of atomic orbitals that were combined.
• Atoms of Period 3 elements can have d orbital hybridisation with s
and p orbitals.
• The number of hybrid orbitals that form is the same as the number of
atomic orbitals that are combined.

Each hybrid orbital has a certain overall shape.

Practice
Draw VSEPR representations for:-
nitrogen trihydride hydrogen disulphide
methane nitrogen trifluoride
xenon tetrafluoride sulphur hexafluoride

For each one, use the hand out to determine the geometries of the
molecules.
Models of Chemical Bonding
Allotropes
• Allotropes are compounds that consist of the same element but have
different physical properties.
• An example is allotropes of carbon, which differ in the pattern of
covalent bonds between carbon atoms.

Allotropes of carbon: A graphite, B diamond,

C buckyballs, D nanotubes
Models of Chemical Bonding
Covalent Network Solids
Network solids are substances that consist of atoms bonded covalently
in a continuous two- or three-dimensional array. There is no natural
beginning or end to the chains of atoms.

Silicon dioxide, SiO2, exists as a

network solid that is represented
as (SiO2)n.