MEASUREMENT & PROCESS

INSTRUMENTATION
18EI36
Unit I
Measurement and Measurement systems
Significance of measurements, Methods of measurements,
classification, Functions, Applications, Elements of Generalized
measurement system with an example.
Quality of measurement systems
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments: Definitions and
comparisons, Static Characteristics: static error, static correction, scale
range and scale span, reproducibility and drift, repeatability, Signal to
noise ratio, sources of noise, accuracy, precision, linearity, hysteresis,
threshold, dead time, Dynamic Characteristics: Fidelity, frequency
response, dynamic error, etc., problems
 Measurement and Measurement systems
Measurements

 Measurement is a technique in which properties of an object are

determined by comparing them to a standard
 The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the
result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and a predefined standard.
 Since two quantities are compared the result. is expressed in
numerical values.
 there are two basic requirements to have the meaningful
measurement results
 The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately
defined and should be commonly accepted
 The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
 Significance of measurements
The importance/significance of measurement as per physicist Lord Kelvin
“I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about
and can express it in numbers, you know something about it; when you
cannot express in it numbers your knowledge is of a meagre and
unsatisfactory kind”
 The advancement of Science and Technology is dependent upon a
parallel progress in measurement techniques.
 It can be safely said that the quickest way to assess a nation's progress in
Science and Technology is to examine the type of measurements that are
being made and the way in which the data is acquired by measurements
and is processed.
 New discoveries are not of any practical utility unless they are backed
by actual measurements.
 The measurements, no doubt, confirm the validity of a hypothesis but
also add to its understanding.
 This results in an unending chain which leads to new discoveries that
require more, new and sophisticated measurement techniques.
 Significance of measurements …. Contd..
 Hence modern Science and Technology are associated with
sophisticated methods of measurement while elementary Science
and Technology require only ordinary methods of measurement.
All engineering branches perform two major functions
i. Design of equipment and processes, and
ii. Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes
 Both these functions require measurements.
 This is because proper and economical design, operation and
maintenance require a feedback of information
Hence Measurement plays a significant role in achieving goals and
objectives of Engineering because of the feedback information supplied
by them
 Methods of measurements
1. Direct Methods
2. Indirect Methods

Direct Methods. In this methods, the unknown quantity (also called the
measurand) is directly compared against a standard.
 The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.
 The standard, in fact, is a physical embodiment of a unit.
 Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical
quantities like length, mass and time.
 Suppose we want to measure the length of a bar. The unit of length is
metre.
 A bar is so many times long because that many units on our standard
have the same length as the bar.
 A human being can make direct length comparisons with a
preciseness of, about 0·25 mm.
 Therefore, on account of human factors it is not possible to make
very accurate measurements.
 Methods of measurements
Indirect Methods: Measurement by direct methods are not always
possible, feasible and practicable.
 These methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate because they
involve human factors. They are also less sensitive.
 Hence direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used.
 In engineering applications Measurement Systems are used. These
measurement systems use indirect methods for measurement
purposes.
A measurement system consists of a transducing element which
converts the quantity to be measured in an analogous form.
The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means
and is then fed to the end devices which present the results of the
measurement
 Generalized measurement system
Most of the measurement systems contains three main functional
elements
i. Primary sensing element
ii. Variable conversion element and
iii. Data presentation element
The functional block diagram of a Measurement system is shown in
figure 1

Measurand Primary Variable Data

Sensing Manipulation Presentation
Element Element Element

Figure 1
 Qualities of Measurements
In a specific measuring process, it is essential to have the knowledge of
the performance characteristics of an instrument to select the suitable
instrument. It consists of two basic characteristics – Static and
Dynamic.
Static Characteristics – These characteristics are considered for
instruments which are used to measure an unvarying condition.
All the static characteristics are obtained by the process called
calibration.
We are describing number of related characteristics, such as accuracy,
precision, repeatability, resolution, sensitivity and errors etc.
 Instrument: A device or mechanism used to determine the present
value of the quantity under measurement.
 Accuracy: The degree of closeness of a measurement compared to
the expected value.
 Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable to which an
instrument will respond.
 Static Characteristics
 Precision: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of
measurements, ie. Successive reading do not differ. (Precision is the
consistency of the instrument output for a given value of input)
 Expected value: The design value, i.e. the most probable value that
calculations indicate one should expect to measure.
 Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output of the instrument to a
change in input or measured variable.
 Error: The deviation of the true value from the desired value.
Some factors that affect the measurements are related to the measuring
instruments other factors are related to the person using the instrument.
Errors may be expressed either as absolute or as percentage of error.

Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the expected

value of the variable and the measured value of the variable
E = Yn– Xn Where E = absolute error, Yn= expected value Xn= measured value
Therefore % Error =
 Static Error
 The most important characteristic of an instrument or measurement
system is its accuracy.
 Which is the agreement of the instrument reading with the true value
of quantity being measured.
 The accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms of its error
 “True value” can be approximated by sufficiently extended series of
measurements and also taking into account parameters and
conditions.
 Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value
and the true value of the quantity.
Then δA = Am - At
where δA = error,
Am = measured value of quantity,
and At = true value of quantity.
δA is also called the absolute static error of quantity A.
We have ε0 = δA
 Static Error
 The absolute value of δA does not indicate precisely the accuracy of
measurements.
 As an example, an error of ± 2A is negligible when the current being
measured is of the order of 1000 A
 while the same error of ± 2A may be regarded as intolerable when
the current under measurement is 10A or so.
Thus the quality of measurement is provided by the relative static error
εr, i.e., the ratio of absolute static error δAto the true value Atof the
quantity under measurement.
εr = = = = %εr = εr x 100
Then, At = Am -
= Am – ε0 = Am – εrAt
=
If the absolute static error ε0 _ δAis small, means the difference between
measured and true value is small, εr << 1.
Then At = Am (1 – εr)
 Static Correction
It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the
quantity,
or δC = At – Am
Where δC = static correction = -δA
Example 1: A meter reads 127.50 V and the true value of the voltage is
127. 43 V. Determine: (a) the static error, and (b) the static correction
for this instrument.
Example 2: A thermometer reads 95.45°C and the static correction
given in the correction curve is -0.08°C. Determine the true value of the
temperature.
Example 3: A voltage has a true value of l.50V. An analog indicating
instrument with a scale range of 0 - 2·50 V shows a voltage of 1.46 V.
What are the values of absolute error and correction? Express the error
as a fraction of the true value and the full scale deflection (f.s.d.).
 Scale Range and Scale Span
 In an analog indicating instrument the value of measurand is indicated
on a scale by a pointer
 In a recording instrument it is indicated on a chart by a pen mechanism.
 The choice of proper range instruments is important in instrumentation.
 The Scale Range of an instrument is defined as the difference between
the largest and the smallest reading of the instrument.
 The highest point of calibration is Xmax units while the lowest is Xmin
units and that the calibration is continuous between the two points.
 Then we can say that the instrument range is between Xmin and Xmax
(or many a times we say that, the instument range is Xmax).
 The instrument span is given by: Span = Xmaz-Xmin
 If the instrument is calibrated between 0 to 1000°C, the range is 1000°C
and span is 1000°C.
 For a thermometer calibrated between 200°C to 500°C, the range is
200°C to 500°C (or 500°C) but the span is 500-200 = 300°C.
 The same is true for digital instruments also.
 The frequencies over which measurements can be performed with
specified accuracy is known as Frequency Range.
 Reproducibility and Drift
Reproducibility:
 It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.
 It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time.
 Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift.
 NO drift means with a given input the measured values do not vary with
time
 Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial instruments because it is rarely
apparent and cannot be easily compensated for.
 Thus it must be carefully guarded against by continuous prevention,
inspection and maintenance.
 Example, stray electrostatic and electromagnetic fields can be prevented by
proper shielding. Effect of mechanical vibrations can be minimized by
proper mountings. Temperature changes during the measurement process
should be preferably avoided or otherwise be properly compensated for
Drift may be classified into three categories
i. Zero drift
ii. Span drift or Sensitivity drift
iii. Zonal drift
 Repeatability
 Reproducibility and Repeatability are a measure of closeness with
which a given input may be measured over and over again.
 The two terms cause confusion.
 Reproducibility is specified in terms of scale readings over a given
period of time.
 Repeatability is defined as the variation of scale reading and is
random in nature.

Noise: Any signal that does Not convey any useful information.
 Extraneous disturbances generated in the measuring system itself or
coming from outside, frequently constitute a background against
which a signal may be read.
 The common sources of noise are given below
i. Generated Noise
ii. Conducted Noise
iii. Radiated Noise
 Noise
Generated Noise: The source of noise can be discussed with the
help of an amplifier as shown in block diagram bellow
Suppose the input signals contain no noise. The power supply serves as
a source of energy for the operation of amplifier.
The output signal is amplifier gain times the input signal plus a noise
signal.
One of the possible sources of noise is on account of internal
components of the amplifier like resistors, capacitors and transistors
etc.
The noise in this case is generated inside the amplifier and therefor is
called Generated noise.
 Noise
Conducted Noise:

 The power supply to the amplifier could be the source of noise since
it may have spikes, ripples or random deviations that are conducted
to the amplifier circuit through power wiring.
 This type of Noise is called Conducted noise.
 The source for the conducted noise is the 50Hz power supply and the
harmonics conducted in it. Filters are used to trap out the noise.
Radiated Noise:
 The electric or magnetic fields or disturbances in the environments
around the amplifier
 unwanted signals are radiated into the interior of the amplifier,
 This is called Radiated noise.
 Common source of radiated noise are electromagnetic impulses
radiated from the ignition wiring of spark plugs.
 These noises can be reduced by proper shielding
 Noise
Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N): The ratio of desired signal to the
unwantednoise is called signal to noise ratio and is expressed as
=

=
 If the magnitude of unwanted signal (Noise) is small compared with
that of signal of interest, then signal to noise ratio (S/N) is large
 In any measurement system, it is desirable to have a large signal-to-
noise ratio
Johnson Noise:is the electronic noise generated by the thermal
agitation of the charge carriers (usually the electrons) inside an
electrical conductor, which happens regardless of any applied voltage.
 Thermal noise is present in all electrical circuit, and in sensitive
electronic equipment such as radio receivers.
 Dynamic Characteristics
 If the measured variables are changes, the instruments rarely respond
instantaneously instead, they exhibit slower or sluggishness due to
mass, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electric capacitance.
 The dynamic and transient behavior of the instrument is as important
as the static behavior.
 The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting
its primary element (sensing element) to some unknown and
predetermined variations in the measured quantity.
The three most common variations in the measured quantity are,
 Step change: in which the primary element is subjected to an
instantaneous and finite change in measured variable.
 Linear change: in which the primary element is following a
measured variable, changing linearly with time.
 Sinusoidal change: in which the primary element follows a
measured variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance
with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
 Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
 Speed of response
 Fidelity
 Lag and
 Dynamic error
Seed of response: How rapidly an instrument responds to changes in
the measured quantity.
Fidelity: (faithful or loyal) The degree to which an instrument indicate
the change for the change in measured variable without dynamic error.
Lag: Delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured
variable.
Dynamic error: The difference between the true value of a quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument, if no
static error is assumed.
When the instruments are used with rapidly varying quantities, the
dynamic relation between the instruments input and output are generally
defined by the use of differential equations.