Theory of Machines (ME313)

Instructor: Sohail Malik

L1 Introduction
 Course texts and references
Course text :
Title: Design of Machinery
Author: R. L. Norton
Edition: Sixth (2019)

Relevant reference:
 Introduction to Mechanical System Simulation Using Adams by James B.
McConville published by SDC Publications, 2015.
 Theory of Machines by R. S. Khurmi, J.K. Gupta published by Eurasia
Publishing House, 2005.
 Course grades
Grades will be based on:
1. Assignments/Home works (25 %)
2. Quizzes (10 %)
3. Mid-term exam (25%)
4. Final exam(40%)
1) All write ups that you present MUST contain
your name and Registration no.
2) Tentative breakdown
Quizzes and Assig Session: 5-6
Home Assignments:2-3
Major Assignment:1
Tutorials (Optional):1-2
2) The worst quiz/Assig. Session will not be graded.

Note: Subject to change without prior notice

Collaboration / academic integrity
Students are encouraged to collaborate in the
solution of HW problems, but submit independent
solutions that are NOT copies of each other.
Funny solutions (that appear similar/same) will be
given zero credit.
Assignment sessions will involve performance at
the spot which will be usually attached with the
quiz.
Software may be used to verify the HW solutions.
But submission of software solution unless stated
will result in zero credit .
 Homework/Assignments (25%)

1. Be as detailed and explicit as possible. For full

credit Do NOT omit steps.
2. Only neatly written home works/assignments will
be graded
3. Late home works/Assignments will NOT be
accepted.
4. Assignments sessions will be evaluated in the
class, if numerical problems are given to solve.
When I hear, I
forget
When I see, I
remember
When I do, I
Software tools for Theory of Machines

1.MSc Adams

2.MATLAB
Tutorials/lectures for off class learning

1.MSc Adams

https://
www.youtube.com/channel/UCGWKgum9C8TMYM7HE63pvI
w?sub_confirmation=1
2. Important Lecture Recordings

https://www.youtube.com/c/DrSohailMalik?sub_confirmation=1
Class Discipline; Rules to follow
DOs
1.Reach the class on time. No will be marked present after 05
minutes of the start of class. Door will be locked after
Instructor enters the class.
2.Attendance sheet once signed by the instructor will not be
changed at any cost.
3. Always bring a notebook and pencil for writing important
points, handouts etc. Anyone without notebook and pen will
be expelled from class along with one absentee.
4.You need to have a good geometrical tool box and
calculator all the time available with you.
5.Bring your laptops and keep them closed till asked to use.
Don’ts
6.Use of mobile phones is strictly prohibited in the class.
Anyone found attending phone or text messaging in the
class will be expelled from class along with one absentee.
 Chapter 1: Introduction

• Kinematics:
The study of motion without regard to forces
• Kinetics:
The study of forces on systems in motion.
– Statics
– Dynamics
• These branches basically originate from Classical
Mechanics
 Chapter 1: Introduction

• Mechanism
A mechanism is a device that transforms motion to some
desirable pattern and typically develops very low forces
and transmits little power
Examples: camera shutter, analogue clock, folding chair
• Machine
A machine typically contains mechanisms that are
designed to produce significant forces and transmit
significant power
Examples: food blender, automobile transmission, a
bulldogger, a robot etc.
 Also

• Mechanism: a system of elements arranged

to transmit motion in a predetermined
fashion
• Machine: a system of elements arranged to
transmit motion and energy in a
predetermined fashion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_GH9Z0QrCg
 History
• Mechanical Clocks
• Military applications, catapults etc
• James Watt (1736-1819) steam
engine
• Euler (1707-1783) analytical
treatment of mechanisms
• d‘Alembert and Kant proposed
dynamics
 Reading Assignment

• Chapter 1
– The design process
– Units
 Chapter 2:

Kinematics Fundamentals
• This chapter will present
– Definitions of a number of terms concepts and
terms fundamental to the synthesis and analysis
of mechanism
– Some very simple but powerful analysis tools
that are useful in the synthesis of a mechanism
 2.3 Links
• Links – building blocks
• Node – attachment points
– Binary link – two nodes
– Ternary link – three nodes
– Quaternary link – four nodes
 Link Classification
• Ground – fixed w.r.t. reference
frame
• Crank – pivoted to ground, makes
complete revolution
• Rocker – pivoted to ground, has
oscillatory motion
• Coupler - link has complex
motion, not attached to ground
 Joint

• A connection between two or more links (at their

nodes), which allows some motion between the
connected links
• Joints (also called kinematic pairs) can be
classified in several ways
– By the type of contact between the elements i.e. line,
point, or surface
– By the number of degrees of freedom allowed at the
joint
– By the type of physical closure of the joint: either force
or form closed
– By the number of links joined (order of the joint)
 Joint: Type of contact
• Lower pair: joints with
surface contact (pin
joint).
• Higher pair: joints with
point or line contact.
(Cylinders)
 Joint: No. of degrees of freedom
• One-freedom: also called full
joints (i.e., full = 1 DOF)
• Two-freedoms joint: also
called half joint (Half also
refers to more than two DOF)
Joint: No. of degrees of freedom
 Full Joint Examples

• Linear slider
• Threaded nut
• Tire on dry ground
 Half Joint Examples

• Collar on rod
• Tire on ice - friction determines the DOF

Slippage Occurs
 Joint: Physical closure
• Form closed: when the design of the joint is holding one
link in a specific place
• Force closed: when a force (e.g. gravity) is tending the
link to be closed
 Joint: No. of links joined

• The order of the joint is defined as the

number of links joined minus one
• It takes two links to make a single joint;
thus the simplest joint combination of two
links has joint order one.
 Revision of definitions

• A kinematic chain: An assemblage of links

and joints, interconnected in a way to
provide a controlled output motion in
response to a supplied input motion
• A Mechanism: A kinematic chain in which
at least one link has been grounded or
attached to the frame of reference (which
itself may be in motion)
 Kinematic Chain
– Open
– Closed
 2.4 Degree of Freedom or Mobility
• The number of inputs that need
to be provided in order to
create a predictable output
Also
• The number of independent
coordinates required to define
its position
 Degree of freedom in Planar
Mechanism
• For determining DOF of a system, one must
account for the number of links and joints
• The DOF of any assembly of links can be
predicted from the Gruebler condition
• Any link in a plane has 3 DOF
• A system of L unconnected links have 3L
DOF
 DOF
• Connecting the links by a full joint, y1 and
y2 are combined as y, and x1 and x2 are
combined as x. This remove two DOF,
leaving four DOF
• Half joint removes only one DOF from the
system, leaving the system of two links
connected by a half joint with a total of five
DOF.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwJOqEfuaOg
 DOF

• When any link is grounded or attached to the

reference frame, all three of its DOF will be
removed
• This reasoning lead to Gruebler’s equation
M = 3L – 2J – 3G
Where: M = degree of freedom or mobility
L = number of links
J = number of joints
G = number of grounded links
 DOF

•  
 DOF

•  
 DOF
• The value of J1 and J2 in these equations must still be
carefully determined to account for all full, half and
multiple joints in any linkage.
• Multiple joints count as one less than the number of links
joined and add to the “full” (J1) category
• The DOF of any proposed mechanism can be quickly
ascertained from this expression before investing any time
in more detailed design
• This equation has no information about link size or shapes,
only their quantity

https://youtu.be/QwJOqEfuaOg
 Determine the DOF ?

Kinematic diagram
 
Determine DOF ?
 Class Activity
• Calculate the degrees of freedom of the mechanisms (Dump
truck) shown in Figure (b).
• Figure (a) is an application of the mechanism.
• Hint: M  3( L  1)  2 J1  J 2

 
 Class Activity
• MSC Adams demonstration for Mobility and other
mechanism’s information
• Hint:
M  3( L  1)  2 J1  J 2
DOF in Spatial (3D) Mechanisms

• The approach used to determine the mobility of a

planar mechanism can be easily extended to three
dimensions
• Each unconnected link in three-space has 6 DOF,
and any one of the six lower pairs can be used to
connect them, as can higher pairs with more
freedom
• A one-freedom remove 5 DOF, a two-freedom
joint remove 4 DOF
• Grounding a link removes 6 DOF
• We will limit our study to 2-D (Planar)
mechanisms
 2.5 Mechanisms and Structures

• If the DOF is positive, it will be a mechanism, and

the links will have relative motion
• If the DOF is exactly zero, then it will be a
structure, and no motion is possible
• If the DOF is negative, then it will be a preloaded
structure, which means that no motion is possible
and some stresses may also be present at the time
of assembly
 2.6 Number synthesis
• The determination of the number and order of
links and joints necessary to produce motion of a
particular DOF
• Link order in this context refers to the number of
nodes per link, i.e., binary, ternary, quaternary,
pentagonal, hexagonal etc.
• The value of number synthesis is to allow the
exhaustive determination of all possible
combinations of link that will yield any chosen
DOF.
 Hypothesis
𝑀 =3 ( 𝐿 − 1 ) − 2 𝐽 OR
3 ( 𝐿 −1) 𝑀
J= −
2 2
• For given number of links or known degree of freedom
what can be predicted for the mechanism?
• If all joints are full joints (pin joints), an odd number of
DOF requires an even number of links and vice versa
• Further considerations are
– Mechanism is a closed chain type
– Order of each joint is one
• J must be positive integer
Link combinations for a Mechanism

•  
Link combinations for a Mechanism
After getting odd – Even relationship between L and M, further information
about mechanism synthesis can be done using all possibilities one by one.
• Case 1
M=1 and L = 2
L-4=T+2Q+3P+4H=-2
This requires a negative number of links, so L = 2 is impossible
• Case 2
M=1 and L = 4
L-4=T+2Q+3P+4H=0, so : T = Q = P = H = 0
L = B + 0 = 4; B = 4
The simplest one-DOF linkage is four binary link- the four-bar linkage
• Case 3
M=1 and L = 6
L-4=T+2Q+3P+4H=2; so: P = H = 0
T may be 0 or 2; Q may only be 0 or 1
If Q = 0, then T must be 2, and
L = B + 2T + 0Q = 6; B = 4, T= 2
If Q= 1, then T must be 0 and:
L = B + 0T+ 1Q = 6; B = 5, Q = 1
There are then two possibilities for L = 6
Link combinations for a Mechanism
• Same can be applied for L = 8
• In tabular form, 1-DOF planar mechanism with revolute joints and up to 8 links

Total Links Binary Ternary Quaternary Pentagonal Hexagonal

4 4 0 0 0 0
6 4 2 0 0 0
6 5 0 1 0 0
8 7 0 0 0 1
8 4 4 0 0 0
8 5 2 1 0 0
8 6 0 2 0 0
8 6 1 0 1 0
 2.7 Paradoxes
• Because the Gruebler
criterion pays no attention
to link size or shapes, it
can give misleading results
in the face of unique
geometric configurations
• MSC Adams demo
 2.8 Isomers
• Isomers details: “Reading assignment”
• Solve related problems on the topics studied till now for
the Quiz/Assignment session 01
 2.9 Linkage Transformation

• The number synthesis technique give the

designer a toolkit of basic linkages of
particular DOF.
• If the arbitrary constraint is relaxed that
restricted to only revolute joint, these basic
linkages can be transformed to a wider
variety of mechanisms with even greater
usefulness
 2.9 Linkage Transformation
• There are certain transformation rules that can be applied to
planar kinematic chains
1. Revolute joints in any loop can be replaced by prismatic joints
with no change in DOF of the mechanism, provided that at least
two revolute joints remain in the loop
2. Any full joint can be replaced by a half joint, but this will
increase the DOF by one
3. Removal of a link will reduce the DOF by one
4. The combination of rule 2 and 3 will keep the original DOF
unchanged
5. Any ternary or higher-order link can be partially “shrunk” to a
lower-order link by coalescing nodes. This will create a multiple
joint but will not change the DOF of the mechanism
6. Complete shrinkage of a higher-order link is equivalent to its
removal. A multiple joint will be created and the DOF will be
reduced
Linkage Transformation: Rule#1
• A four-bar crank-rocker linkage transformed into the four-bar slider by the
application of rule #1
• It is still a fourbar linkage
• Link 4 has become a sliding block
• The Gruebler’s equation is unchanged at one DOF because the slider block
provides a full joint against link 1, as did the pin joint it replaces
 2.10 Intermittent Motion
• A sequence of motions and dwells
• A dwell is a period in which the output link remains
stationary while the input link continues to move
• There are many applications in machinery that require
intermittent motion
• The cam-follower variation on the fourbar linkage is often
used in these situations
 Geneva Mechanism
• A common form of
intermittent motion device is
the Geneva mechanism
Linear Geneva Mechanism
Ratchet and Pawl
 2.11 Inversion
• An inversion is created by grounding a different
links in the kinematic chain
• The motion resulting from each inversion can be
quite different, but some inversions of a linkage
may yield motions similar to other inversions of
same linkages
• In these cases, only some of the inversions may
have distinctly different motions
• Here only inversions that have distinctly different
motion are denoted as distinct inversions
Slider inversion
 Stephenson’s sixbar
• Stephenson’s sixbar has three distinct inversions
 Watt’s Sixbar chain
• Watt’s sixbar chain has two distinct inversions
 2.12 The Grashof Condition

The Grashof condition is a very simple relationship that

predicts the rotation behaviour or rotatability of a fourbar
linkage’s inversions based only on the link lengths
Let: S = length of shortest link
L = length of longest link
P = length of one remaining link
Q = length of other remaining link
Then if: S + L ≤ P + Q The linkage is Grashof
At least one link will be capable of making a full revolution
with respect to the ground plane (Crank), and is called Class I
kinematic link
 2.12 The Grashof Condition…

• If the inequality is not true, then the linkage is non-

Grashof and no link will be capable of a complete
revolution relative to any other link (Rocker). This is
called a Class II kinematic chain
• The Grashof condition apply regardless of the order of
assembly of the links, i.e., S, L, P , Q or S, P, L, Q.
• The motion possible from a fourbar linkage will depend on
both the Grashof condition and the inversion chosen
• The inversions will be defined with respect to the shortest
link
 2.12 The Grashof Condition…
• For the Class I case, S + L < P + Q
1. Ground either link adjacent to the shortest
and a crank-rocker link is formed, in which
the shortest link will fully rotate and the
other link pivoted to the ground will
oscillate
 2.12 The Grashof Condition…

2. Ground the shortest link and this will form

a double-crank, in which both links
pivoted to ground make complete
revolutions
 2.12 The Grashof Condition…
3. Ground the link opposite the shortest and it
forms a Grashof double-rocker, in which
both links pivoted to ground oscillate and
only the coupler makes a full revolution
Inversions of Grashof fourbar linkage
 Grashof Condition
• For the class II
case,
S+L>P+Q
• All inversions will
be triple-rockers in
which no link can
fully rotate
Non-Grashof fourbar linkage
 Grashof Condition

• For the class III case, S + L = P + Q

• Referred to as special-case Grashof and also
as a Class III kinematic chain, all inversions
will be either double-cranks or crank-
rockers but will have “change points” twice
per revolution of the input crank when the
links all become collinear
Special-case Grashof Linkage
 2.13 Linkage classification contd..

• For four links to be assembled ?

L< S+P+Q
• If L= S+P+Q ?
• Four links can be assembled but cannot be
moved
 2.14 Linkages of more than four bars

• Geared Fivebar Linkages

• Sixbar Linkages
 Geared Fivebar Linkages
• There will be cases when a more complicated solution is necessary
• Adding one links and one joint to form a fivebar will increase the
DOF by one, to two
• By adding a pair of gears to tie two links together with a new half
joint, the DOF is reduced again to one, and the Geared fivebar
mechanism (GFBM) is created
 2.14 Springs as links

• As long as the spring provide the right

amount of force, and hold the parts at the
required place, it reduces the DOF of the
system to zero, as it is holding the system in
static equilibrium
• However, the DOF can be restored by
overcoming the spring force
Spring as Link
 Reading Assignment

• Compliant Mechanisms
• Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
• Practical Considerations
• Motors and Drives
 Problem 2-10
Use linkage transformation rule(s) to reduce the DOF of the
following mechanism by 1.
I
1 2
Solution:
II 3
III
There are two ways; 4
VII
1- Use rule # 2 V
IV
2- Use rule # 3
7 5
6 Half joint
VI
 Problem 2-21(e)
Find the Mobility of the mechanism shown.
Problem 2-21(e)
 Assignment # 1

Problems from Ch#2 (5th Ed.)

2.7~2.11, 2.13, 2.14, 2.17, 2.21

Following is advised for practice:

Use MSc Adams and closely observe the
motion of unclear mechanism given in the
exercise.