Chapter SEVEN

Motivation: From
Concepts to
Applications
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory

Job Characteristics
Model Characteristics
Characteristics
Identifies five job 1.1. Skill
Skillvariety
variety
characteristics and their
relationship to personal and 2.2. Task
Taskidentity
identity
work outcomes 3.3. Task
Tasksignificance
significance
4.4. Autonomy
Autonomy
5.5. Feedback
Feedback
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
 Job Characteristics Model
– Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given,
directly affect three psychological states of employees:
• Knowledge of results
• Meaningfulness of work
• Personal feelings of responsibility for results
– Increases in these psychological states result in
increased motivation, performance, and job
satisfaction.
 Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics
Characteristics Examples
Skill Variety
• High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers
• Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity
• High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the
object, and finishes it to perfection
• Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs
Task Significance
• High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
• Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy
• High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and
decides on the best techniques for a particular installation
• Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a
routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback
• High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to
determine if it operates properly
• Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a
quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it
 The
The Job
Job Characteristics
Characteristics Model
Model

Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by E X H I B I T 7–1
E X H I B I T 7–1
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of
different activities (how may different skills are
used in a given day, week, month?)

Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of a
whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to
end)

Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on
the lives or work of other people
Job
Job Design
Design Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom
and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work
and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying
it out

Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities
required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct
and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
performance
Computing
Computing aa Motivating
Motivating Potential
Potential Score
Score

People
Peoplewho
whowork
workon
onjobs
jobswith
withhigh
highcore
coredimensions
dimensions
are
aregenerally
generallymore
moremotivated,
motivated,satisfied,
satisfied,and
and
productive.
productive.
Job
Jobdimensions
dimensionsoperate
operatethrough
throughthe
thepsychological
psychological
states
statesinininfluencing
influencingpersonal
personaland
andwork
workoutcome
outcome
variables
variablesrather
ratherthan
thaninfluencing
influencingthem
themdirectly.
directly.
Job
Job Design
Design and
and Scheduling
Scheduling
Job Rotation
The periodic shifting of a worker from
one task to another

Job Enlargement
The horizontal expansion of
jobs

Job Enrichment
The vertical expansion of jobs
 Guidelines
Guidelines for
for Enriching
Enriching aa Job
Job

E X H I B I T 7–2
E X H I B I T 7–2
Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle, eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1977), p. 138.
Alternative
Alternative Work
Work Arrangements
Arrangements
Flextime
Employees work during a common core time period each
day but have discretion in forming their total workday from
a flexible set of hours outside the core.

Job Sharing
The practice of having two or more people split a 40-
hour-a-week job
Example
Example of
of aa Flextime
Flextime Schedule
Schedule

E X H I B I T 7–3
E X H I B I T 7–3
Alternative
Alternative Work
Work Arrangements,
Arrangements, cont.
cont.
Telecommuting
Employees do their work at home on a computer that is
linked to their office.

Categories
CategoriesofofTelecommuting
TelecommutingJobs
Jobs
• • Routine
Routineinformation-handling
information-handlingtasks
tasks
• • Mobile
Mobileactivities
activities
• • Professional
Professionaland
andother
otherknowledge-
knowledge-
related tasks
related tasks
Telecommuting
Telecommuting
 Advantages  Disadvantages
– Larger labor pool (Employer)
– Less direct supervision
– Higher productivity
of employees
– Less turnover
– Difficult to coordinate
– Improved morale teamwork
– Reduced office-space – Difficult to evaluate
costs non-quantitative
performance
 Performance
Performance == f(A
f(A xx M
M xx O)
O)

Source: Adapted from M. Blumberg and C.D. Pringle, “The Missing Opportunity in
Organizational Research: Some Implications for a Theory of Work Performance,” E X H I B I T 6–9
E X H I B I T 6–9
Academy of Management Review, October 1982, p. 565.
What
What Is
Is Employee
Employee Involvement?
Involvement?
Employee Involvement Program
A participative process that uses the entire capacity of
employees and is designed to encourage increased
commitment to the organization’s success
Examples
Examples of
of Employee
Employee Involvement
Involvement Programs
Programs

Participative Management
A process in which subordinates share a significant
degree of decision-making power with their immediate
superiors
Examples
Examples of
of Employee
Employee Involvement
Involvement
Programs
Programs (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Representative Works Councils
Participation Groups of nominated or
Workers participate in elected employees who must
organizational decision be consulted when manage-
making through a small ment makes decisions
group of representative involving personnel
employees.
Board Representative
A form of representative
participation; employees sit on
a company’s board of directors
and represent the interests of
the firm’s employees.
Examples
Examples of
of Employee
Employee Involvement
Involvement
Programs
Programs (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Quality Circle
A work group of employees who meet regularly to
discuss their quality problems, investigate causes,
recommend solutions, and take corrective actions
Linking
Linking EI
EI Programs
Programs and
and Motivation
Motivation Theories
Theories

Theory
TheoryYY Two-Factor
Two-Factor
(Believing
(Believing Employee
Employee Theory
Theory
Employees
Employees Involvement
Involvement
Want ((Intrinsic
Intrinsic
Wantto toBe
Be Programs
Programs Motivation)
Involved) Motivation)
Involved)

ERG
ERGTheory
Theory
((Employee
Employee
Needs)
Needs)
Rewarding
Rewarding Employees:
Employees: Four
Four Aspects
Aspects

••What
Whatto
toPay
Pay(Internal
(Internalvs.
vs.external
externalequity)
equity)
••How
Howto toPay
Pay(e.g.,
(e.g., Piece
Piecerate,
rate,merit
meritbased,
based,bonuses,
bonuses,
profit
profitsharing,
sharing, gain
gainsharing,
sharing, ESOPs,
ESOPs,skill-based
skill-basedpay)
pay)
••What
WhatBenefits
Benefitsto
toOffer
Offer (e.g.,
(e.g.,Flexible
Flexiblebenefits)
benefits)
••How
Howto
toRecognize
RecognizeEmployees
Employees
Rewarding
Rewarding Employees:
Employees: Variable
Variable Pay
Pay Programs
Programs

Variable Pay Programs

A portion of an employee’s pay is based on some
individual and/or organization measure of performance.
• Piece rate pay plans
• Profit sharing plans
• Gain sharing plans
Variable
Variable Pay
Pay Programs
Programs (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Piece Rate Pay Plans
Workers are paid a fixed sum for each
unit of production completed.

Profit Sharing Plans

Organization-wide programs that distribute compensation
based on some established formula designed around a
company’s profitability

Gain Sharing
An incentive plan in which improvements in group
productivity determine the total amount of money that is
allocated.
Rewarding
Rewarding Employees
Employees

Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)

Company-established benefit plans in which employees
acquire stock as part of their benefits.
Skill-based
Skill-based Pay
Pay Plans
Plans
Pay levels are based on how many skills employees
have or how many jobs they can do.

Benefits
BenefitsofofSkill-based
Skill-basedPay
PayPlans:
Plans:
1.1. Provides
Providesstaffing
staffingflexibility
flexibility
2.2. Facilitates
Facilitatescommunication
communicationacross acrossthe
theorganization
organization
3.3. Lessens
Lessens“protection
“protectionofofterritory”
territory”behaviors
behaviors
4.4. Meets
Meetsthe
theneeds
needsofofemployees
employeesfor foradvancement
advancement
(without
(withoutpromotion)
promotion)
5.5. Leads
Leadstotoperformance
performanceimprovements
improvements
Skill-based
Skill-based Pay
Pay Plans
Plans (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Drawbacks
DrawbacksofofSkill-based
Skill-basedPay
PayPlans:
Plans:
1.1. Lack
Lackofofadditional
additionallearning
learningopportunities
opportunitiesthat
thatwill
will
increase
increaseemployee
employeepay pay
2.2. Continuing
Continuingtotopay
payemployees
employeesfor
forskills
skillsthat
thathave
have
become
becomeobsolete
obsolete
3.3. Paying
Payingfor
forskills
skillsthat
thatare
areofofno
noimmediate
immediateuseusetotothe
the
organization
organization
4.4. Paying
Payingfor
foraaskill,
skill,not
notfor
forthe
thelevel
levelofofemployee
employee
performance
performanceforforthe
theparticular
particularskill
skill
Linking
Linking Skill-based
Skill-based Plans
Plans and
and Motivation
Motivation Theories
Theories

Equity
Equity
Reinforcement
Reinforcement Skill-based
Skill-basedPay
Pay
Theory Plans Theory
Theory
Theory Plans

McClelland’s
McClelland’s
ERG
ERGTheory
Theory Need
Needforfor
(Growth)
(Growth) Achievement
Achievement
Flexible
Flexible Benefits
Benefits

Employees tailor their

benefit program to Core-Plus
Core-PlusPlans
Plans
AAcore
coreofofessential
essentialbenefits
benefits
meet their personal
and
andaamenu-like
menu-likeselection
selection
need by picking and ofofother
otherbenefit
benefitoptions
options
choosing from a menu
of benefit options.

Flexible
FlexibleSpending
SpendingPlans
Plans
Modular
ModularPlans
Plans Allow
Allowemployees
employeestotouse
use
Predesigned
Predesignedbenefits
benefits their
theirtax-free
tax-freebenefit
benefitdollars
dollars
packages
packagesforforspecific
specific totopurchase
purchasebenefits
benefitsand
and
groups
groupsofofemployees
employees pay
payservice
servicepremiums
premiums
 Employee
Employee Recognition
Recognition Programs
Programs
 Intrinsic rewards: Stimulate Intrinsic Motivation
– Personal attention given to employee
– Approval and appreciation for a job well done
– Growing in popularity and usage
 Benefits of Programs
– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition
– Inexpensive to implement
– Encourages repetition of desired
behaviors
 Drawbacks of Programs
– Susceptible to manipulation by management
 E X H I B I T 7–2
E X H I B I T 7–2
From the Wall Street Journal, October 21, 1997. Reprinted by permission of Cartoon Features Syndicate.
Implications
Implications for
for Managers
Managers

 In Order to Motivate Employees

– Recognize individual differences
– Use goals and feedback
– Allow employees to participate in decisions that
affect them
– Link rewards to performance
– Check the system for equity
Chapter
Chapter Check-up:
Check-up: Motivation
Motivation Applications
Applications

Flexible benefits are recommended most

strongly by __________ Theory.

Expectancy theory suggests that

individuals should be rewarded with
something they value.
Chapter
Chapter Check-up:
Check-up: Motivation
Motivation Applications
Applications

According
Accordingto
toExpectancy
ExpectancyTheory,
Theory,aastudent
studentwill
will
not
notbe
bemotivated
motivatedto
toattend
attendclass
classififshe/he
she/hedoesn’t
doesn’t
care
careabout
aboutgrades.
grades.What
Whatother
otherkind
kindof
ofapplication
application
might
mightbe
beplausible
plausiblefor
foraaprofessor
professorto
toimplement
implement
as
asaareward
rewardtheory
theoryininclass?
class?Use
Usemodels
modelsfrom
from
this
thischapter
chapterto
todiscuss
discusswith
withaaclassmate
classmateand
and
arrive
arriveat
ataasuggestion.
suggestion.